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•aWer.
=^«.
CHARLES R. SANDERS, JR.
Americana-Southeastern States
123 Montgomery Street
Raleigh, North Carolina
This book is due on the date indicated below
and is subject to a fine of •IBPi^ENTS a
day thereafter.
l!lllll|l«ll|iUlllllllliill|iill!lillia«'"3!lliiilil^^^^^^^^^^^
■^^^^^^^^^^^
THE POLAE WORLD:
A POPULAR DESCRIPTION OP
MAN AND NATURE
ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC REGIONS OF THE GLOBE.
By Dr. G. HARTWIG,
.VUTUOR OF
'THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS," "THE HARMONIES OF NATURE,'
AND "THE TROPICAL WORLD."
WITH ADDITIOML CHAPTERS AND ONE HUNDRED AND SIXTY
THREE ILLUSTRATIONS.
N E W YORK:
HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
1869.
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1869, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
In the Clerk's Othce of the District Court of the United States for the Southern
District of New York.
PREFACE
'T^HE object of the following pages is to describe the Polar World in its
principal natural features, to point out the influence of its long winter-
night and fleeting summer on the development of vegetable and animal ex-
istence, and finall|(^to picture man waging the battle of life against the dread-
ful climate of the high latitudes of our globe either as the inhabitant of
their gloomy solitudes, or as the bold investigator of their mysteries.
The table of contents shows the great variety of interesting subjects em-
braced within a comparatively narrow compass ; and as my constant aim has
been to convey solid instruction under an entertaining form, I venture to
hope that the public will grant this new work the favorable reception given
to my previous writings.
G. Hartwig.
NOTE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
"T HAVE made no alterations in the text of Dr. Hartwig's book beyond
-^ changing the orthography of a few geographical and ethnological terms
so that they shall conform to the mode of representation usual in our maps
and books of travel. For example, I substitute Mud ZemUa for " Novaya
Zemla," and Samdiedes for "Samojedes." Here and there throughout the
work I have added a sentence or a paragraph. ' The two chapters on
" Alaska " and " The Innuits " have been supplied by me ; and for them
Dr. Hartwig is in no way responsible.
The Illustrations have been wholly selected and arranged by me. I found
at my disposal an immense number of illustrations which seemed to me bet-
ter to elucidate the text than those introduced by Dr. Hartwig. In the List
of Illustrations the names of the authors to whom I am indebted are sup-
vi PREFACE.
plied. The following gives the names of the authors, and the titles of
the works from which the illustrations have been taken :
Atkinson, Thojeas Witla:i : "Travels in the Regions of the Upper Amoor;" and "Oriental
and Western Siberia. "
Browne, J. Ross : " The Land of Thor."
DuFFERiN, Lord : "Letters from High Latitndes."
Hall, Charles Francis : "Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux."'
Harper's Magazine : The Illustrations credited to this periodical have been furnished during
many years by more than a score of travellers and voyagers. They are in every case authentic.
Lamont, James : " Seasons with the Sea-Horses ; or, Sporting Adventui-es in the Northern Seas."
Milton, Viscount : "North-west Passage by Land."
WiiYMPER, Frederick : "Alaska, and British America."
Wood, Rev. J. G. : "Natm-al History- ;" and "Homes without Hands."
I trust that I have throughout wrought in the spirit of the author ; and
that my labors will enhance the value of his admirable b^k.
A. IT. G.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER I.
THE ARCTIC LANDS.
The barren Grounds or Tundri. — Abundance of animal Life on the Tundri in Summer. — Their Silence
and Desolation in Winter. — Protection afforded to Vegetation by the Snow* — Flower-growth in
the highest Latitudes. — Character of Tundra Vegetation. — Southern Boundar_v-line of the barien
Grounds. — Their Extent. — The forest Zone. — Arctic Trees. — Slowness of their Growth. — Monotony
of the Northern Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The various Causes which determine the Severity of an
Arctic Climate. — Insular and Continental Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes of Cold observed
bv Sir E. Belcher and Dr. Kane. — How is Man able to support the Rigors of an Arctic Winter? —
Proofs of a milder Climate having once reigned in the Arctic Regions. — Its Cause according to
Dr. Oswald Heer.— Peculiar Beauties of the Arctic Regions. — Sunset.^Long lunar Nights.— The
Aurora Page 17
CHAPTER IL
ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
The Reindeer. — Structure of its Foot. — Clattei-ing Noise when walking. — Antlers. — Extraordinary
olfactory Powers. — The Icelandic Moss. — Present and Former Range of the Rgindeer. — Its invalu-
able Qualities as an Arctic domestic Animal. — Revolts against Oppression. — Enemies of the Rein-
deer.—The Wolf.— The Gluiton or Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The Elk or Moose-deer. — The Musk-
ox. — The Wild Sheep of the Rocky Mountains.— The Siberian Argali. — The Arctic Fox.— Its Bur-
rows.— The Lemmings. — Their Migrations and Enemies. — Arctic Anatida?. — The Snou-bnnting. —
The Lapland Bunting.— The Sea-eagle.— Drowned by a Dolphin • , . .84
CHAPTER III.
THE ARCTIC SEAS.
Dangers peculiar to the Arctic Sea. — Ice-fields. — Hummocks. — Collision of Ice-fields. — Icebergs. — Their
Origin. — Their Size. — The Glaciers which give them Birth.— Their Beauty. — Sometimes useful
Auxiliaries to the Mariner. — Dangers of anchoring to a Berg. — A crumbling Berg. — The Ice-blink.
—Fogs. — Transparency of the Atmosphere. — Phenomena of Reflection ami Refraction. — Causes
which prevent the Accumulation of Polar Ice. — Tides.— Currents. — Ice a bad Conductor of Heat.—
Wise Provisions of Nature ■!">
CHAPTER IV.
ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS.
Populousness of the Arctic Seas. —The Greenland Whale. —The Fin Whales.— The Narwhal.—
The Beluga, or White Dolphin.— The Black Dolphin.— His wholesale Massacre on the Facroe Isl-
ands.—The Ore, or Grampus.— The Seals.— The Walrus.— Its acute Smell.— History of a young
Walrus.— Parental Affection.- The Polar Bear.— His Sagacity.— Hibernation of the She-bear.—
Sea-birds 59
CHAPTER V.
ICELAND.
Volcanic Origin of the Island.— The Klofa Ji3kul.— Lava-streams.— The Burning Mountains of Krisn-
vik.— The Mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.— The Tungo-hver at Reykholt— The Great Geysi''-— Tlie
^iii CONTENTS.
Strokkr.— Crystal Pools.— The Almannagja.— The Surts-hellir.— Beautiful Ice-cave.— The Gotha
Foss.— The Detti Foss.— Climate.— Vegetation.— Cattle.— Barbarous Mode of Sheep-sheering.—
Reindeer.— Polar Bears.— Birds.— The Eider-duck.— Videy.—Vigr.— The Wild Swan. — The Ra-
ven.—The Jerfalcon.— The Giant auk, or Geirfugl.— Fish.— Fishing Season.— The Wliite Shark.—
Mineral Kingdom.— Sulphur.— Peat.— Drift-wood " Page 68
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Discovery of the Island by Naddodr in 861.— Gardar.— Floki of the Ravens.— Ingolfr and Leif.— Ulfliot
the Lawgiver.— The Althing.— Thingvalla.— Introduction of Christianity into the Island.— Fred-
erick the Saxon and Thorwold the Traveller.— Thangbrand.— Golden Age of Icelandic Literature.
— Snorri Sturleson. — The Island submits to Ilakon, King of Norway, in 1254.— Long Series of Ca-
lamities.—Great Eruption of the Skapta Jokul in 1783.— Commercial Monopoly.— Better Times in
Prospect 89
CHAPTER VII.
THE ICELANDERS.
Skalholt.— Reykjavik.— The Fair.— The Peasant and the Merchant.— A Clergyman in his Cups.— Hay-
making.— The Icelander's Hut.— Churches.— Poverty of the Clergy.— Jon Thorlaksen.— The Semi-
nary of Reykjavik.— Beneficial Influence of the Clergy.— Home Education.— The Icelander's Winter's
Evening.— Taste for Literature.— The Language.— The Public Library at Reykjavik.— The Icelandic
Literary Society.— Icelandic Newspapers.— Longevity.— Leprosy. — Travelling in Iceland.— Fording
the Rivers.— Crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.— A Night's Bivouac 98
CHAPTER VIII.
THE WESTMAN ISLANDS.
The W^estmans.— Their extreme Difficulty of Access.— How they became peopled.— Heimaey. —
Kaufstathir and Ofanleyte.— Sheep-hoisting.— Egg-gathering.— Dreadful Mortality among the
Children. —The pinklofi.— Gentleman John.— The Algerine Pirates.— Dreadful Sufferings of the
Islanders .* '. 114
♦
CHAPTER IX.
C FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.
Mild Climate of the Norwegian Coast.— Its Causes.— The Norwegian Peasant.— Norwegian Constitution.—
Romantic coast Scenery.— Drontheim.—Greiffenfeld Holme and Viire. —The Sea-eagle.— The Herring-
fisheries.— The Lofoten Islands.— The Cod-fisheries.— W' retched Condition of the Fishermen.— Tromso.
— Altenfiord.— The Copper Mines.— Hammerfest the most northern Town ip the World.— The North
Cape : 120
CPIAPTER X.
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— .TAN MEYEN.
The west Coast of Spitzbergen.— Ascension of a Mountain by Dr. Scoresby.— His Excursion along tiie
Coast.— A stranded Whale.— Magdalena Bay.— Multitudes of Sea-birds.— Animal Life.— Midnight
Silence.— Glaciers.— A dangerous Neighborhood.— Interior Plateau.— Flora of Spitzbergen. —Its
Similarity with that of the Alps above the Snow-line.— Reindeer.— The hyperborean Ptarmigan.—
Fishes.— Coal.— Drift-wood.— Discovery of Spitzbergen by Barentz, Heemskerk, and Ry p.— Brilliant
Period of the Whale-fishery.— Coffins.— Eight English Sailors winter in Spitzbergen, 1630.— Melan-
choly Death of some Dutch Volunteers.— Russian Hunters.— Their Mode of wintering in Spitzber-
gen.—Scharostin.— Walrus-ships from Hammerfest and Tromso.— Bear or Cherie Island.— Bennet.
—Enormous Slaughter of Walruses.— Mildness of itsClimate.— Mount Misery.— Adventurous Boat-
voyage of some Norwegian Sailors.— Jan Meyen. — Beerenberg 131
CHAPTER XI.
NOVA ZEMBLA.
The Sea of Kara. — Loschkin. — Rosmysslow.— Ltitke.- Krotow. — Pachtussow. — Sails along the east-
ern Coast of the Southern Island to Matoschkin Schar.— His second Voyage and Death. — Meteoro-
CONTENTS. ix
logical Observations of Ziwolka. — The cold Summer of Nova Zembla. — VonBaer's scientific Voyage
to Nova Zembla. — His Adventures in Matoschkin Schar. — Storm in Kostin Schar. — Sea Batii and
votive Cross. — Botanical Observations. — A natural Garden. — Solitude and Silence. — A Bird Ba-
zar.— Hunting Expeditions of the Russians to Nova Zembla Page 147
CHAPTER- XII.
THE LAPPS.
Tlieir ancient History and Conversion to Christianity. — Self-denial and Poverty of the Lapland Clergy.
— Their, singular Mode of Preaching. — Gross Superstition of the Lapps. — The Evil Spirit of the
Woods. — The Lapland Witches.— Physical Constitution of the Lapps. — Their Dress. — The FjalUap-
pars. — Their Dwellings. — Store-houses. — Reindeer Pens. — Milking the Reindeer.— Migration.—
The Lapland Dog. — Skiders, or Skates. — The Sledge, or Pulka.— Natural Beauties of Lapland.—
Attachment of the Lapps to their Country.— Bear-hunting.— Wolf-hunting.— Mode of Living of the
wealthy Lapps.— How they kill the Reindeer.— Visiting the Fair.— Manmion Worship.— Treasure-
hiding. — " Tabak, or Braende."— Affectionate Disposition of the Lapps.— Tlie Skogslapp.— The
Fisherlapp 156
CHAPTER XIIL
MATTHIAS ALEXANDER CASTEEN.
His Birthplace and first Studies.— Journey in Lapland, 1838.— The Iwalojoki.— The Lake of Enara.—
The Pastor of Utzjoki. — From Rowaniemi to Kemi. — Second Voyage, 1841-44. — Storm on the
White Sea. — Return to Archangel. — The Tundras of the European Samoiedes. — Mesen. — Universal
• Drunkenness.— Sledge Journey to Pustosersk. — A Samoiede Teacher. — Tundra Storms.— Abandon-
ed and alone in the Wilderness.— Pustosersk. — Our Traveller's Persecutions at Ustsylmsk and Ish-
emsk. — The Uusa.— Crossing the Ural.— Obdorsk.— Second Siberian Journey, 1845-48.— Overflow-
ing of the Obi.— Surgut. — Krasnojarsk. — Agreeable Surprise.— Turuchansk.—Voj-age down the
Jenissei.— Castren's Study at Plachina. — From Dudinka to Tolstoi Noss.— Frozen Feet.— Returii
Voyage to the South.— Frozen fast on the Jenissei. — Wonderful Preservation.— Journey across the
Chinese Frontiers, and to Transbaikalia.— Return to Finland.— Professorship at Ilelsingfors.— Death
of Castren, 1855 168
* CHAPTER XIV.
THE SAMOIEDES.
Their Barbarism. — Nuni, or Jilibeambaertje. — Shamanism. — Samoiede Idols. — Sjadtci. — Hahe. — The Ta-
debtsios, or Spirits. — The Tadibes, or Sorcerers. — Their Dress. — Their Invocations. — Their conjuring
Tricks. — Reverence paid to the Dead. — A Samoiede Oath. — Appearance of the Samoiedes. — Their
Dress. — A Samoiede Belle. — Character of the Samoiedes. — Their decreasing Numbers.— Traditions of
ancient Heroes 1"9
CHAPTER XV.
THEOSTIAKS.
WTiat is the Obi.? — Inundations. — An Ostiak summer Yourt.— Povert}'- of the Ostiak Fishermen.— A
winter Yourt. — Attachment of the Ostiaks to their ancient Customs.— An Ostiak Prince. — Archeiy.
— Appearance and Character of the Ostiaks.— The Fair of Obdorsk 185
CHAPTER XVI.
CONQUEST OF SIBERIA BY THE EDSSIANS— THEIR VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY ALONG THE SHORES OF THE
POLAR SEA.
Ivan the Terrible.— StrogonofF.—Yermak, the Robber and Conqueror.— His Expeditions to Siberia.—
Battle of Tobolsk.— Yermak's Death.— Progress of the Russians to Ochotsk.— Semen Deshnew.—
Condition of the Siberian Natives under the Russian Yoke. — Voyages of Disccn'ery in the Reign of
the Empress Anna. — Prontschischtschew. — Chariton and Demetrius Laptew. — An Arctic Heroine.
— Schalaurow. — Discoveries in the Sea of Bering and in the Pacific Ocean. — The Liichow Islands. —
Fossil Ivory.— New Siberia.— The wooden Mountains.— The past Ages of Siberia 191
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVII.
SIBERIA— FUR-TRADE AND GOLD-DIGGfiSGS.
Siberia.— Its imiiieiise Extent and Capabilities.— The Exiles.— Mentschikoflf.-Dolgorouky.— Munich.—
The Criminals.— The free Siberian Peasant.— Extremes of Heat and Cold.— Fur-bearint,^ Animals.—
The Sable.— The Ermine.— The Siberian Weasel.— The Sea-otter.— The black Fox.— The Lynx.—
The Squirrel.— The varying Hare.— The Suslik.— Importance of the Fur-trade for the Northern
Provinces of the Russian Empire.— The Gold-diggings of Eastern Siberia.— The Taiga.— Expenses
and Difficulties of searching Expeditions.— Costs of Produce, and enormous Profits of successful
Speculators.— Their senseless Extravagance.— First Discovery of Gold in the Ural Mountains.—
Jakowlew and Demidow. — Nishne-Tagilsk Pa„g 904
CHAPTER XVIII.
middendorff's adventures in taimurland.
For what Purpose was Middendorffs Voyage to Taimurland undertaken?— Difficulties and Obstacles.—
Expedition down the Taimur River to the Polar Sea.— Storm on Taimur Lake.— Loss of the Boat.—
Jliddendorff ill and ulone in 75° N. Lat.— Saved by a grateful Samoiede.— Climate and Vegetation of
Taimurland 220
CHAPTER XIX.
the jakuts.
Their energetic Nationality.— Their Descent.— Their gloomy Character.— Summer and Winter Dwell-
ings.—The Jakut Horse.— Incredible Powers of Endurance of the Jakuts.— Tlieir Sharpness of Vis-
ion.—Surprising local Memory.— Their manual Dexterity.— Leather, Poniards, Carpets. —Jakut
Gluttons. — Superstitious Fear of the Mountain-spirit Ljeschei.— Offerings of Horse-hair.— Improvised
Songs.— The River Jakut 228
CHAPTER XX.
wrangell.
His distinguished Services as an Arctic Explorer. — From Petersburg to Jakutsk in 1820. — Trade of
Jakutsk.— From Jakutsk to Nishne-Kolymsk.— The Badarlny.— Dreadful Climate of Nishne-Ko-
lymsk.—SummerPlagues.— Vegetation.— Animal Life. —Reindeer-hunting.— Famine.— Inundations.
—The Siberian Dog.— First Journeys over the Ice of the Polar Sea, and Ex pi oration -of the Coast
beyond Cape Shelagskoi in 1821.— Dreadful Dangers and Hardships.— Matiuschkin's Sledge-journey
over the Polar Sea in 1822.— Last Adventures on the Polar Sea. — A Run for Life.— Return to St.
Petersburg 233
CHAPTER XXI.
THE TUNGUSI.
Their Relationship to the Mantchou. — Dreadful Condition of the outcast Nomads. — Character of
the Tungusi. — Their Outfit for the Chase. — Bear-hunting. — Dwellings. — Diet. — A Night's Halt with
Tungusi in the Forest. — Ochotsk 244
CHAPTER XXII.
GEORGE WILLIAM STELLER.
His Birth. — Enters the Russian Service.— Scientific Journey to Kamchatka.— Accompanies Bering on his
second Voyage of Discovery.— Lands on the Island of Kaiak.— Shameful Conduct of Bering.— Ship-
wreck on Bering Island.— Bering's Death.— Return to Kamchatka.— Loss of Property.— Persecutions
of the Siberian Authorities.— Frozen to Death at Tjumen '. 248
CHAPTER XXIII.
KAMCHATKA.
Climate.— Fertility.— Luxuriant Vegetation. —Fish.— Sea-birds.— Kamchatkan Bird-catchers.— The Bay
of Avatscha.— Petropaylosk.— The Kamchatkans.— Their phj'sical and moral Qualities.— The Fri-
tillaria Sarrana.— The Muchamor. — Bears.— Dogs 254
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE TCHUKTCHI.
The Land of the Tchuktchi.— Their independent Spirit and eommei-cial Entei-prise.— Perpetual Migra-
tions.— The Fair of Ostrownoje. — Visit in a Tchuktch Polog. — Races. — Tchuktch Bayaderes.—
The Tennygk, or Reindeer Tchuktchi. — The Onkilon, or Sedentary Tchuktchi. — Their Mode of
Life Page 262
CHAPTER XXV.
BERING SEA — THE RUSSIAN FUR COMPANY — ^THE ALEUTS.
BeringSea.— Unalaska.— The Pribilow Islands.— St. Matthew.— St. Laurence.— Bering's Straits.— The
Russian Fur Company.— The Aleuts. — Their Character. — Their Skill and Intrepidity in hunting the
Sea-otter,— The Sea-bear.— Whale-chasing.— Walrus-slaughter.— The Sea-lion 268
CHAPTER XXVI.
ALASKA.
Purchase of Alaska by the United States. — The Russian American Telegraph Scheme.— Whymper's
Trip up the Yukon.— Dogs. — The Start.— Extempore Water-filter.— Snow-shoes.— The Frozen Yu-
kon.—Under-ground Houses. — Life at Nulato.— Cold Weather.— Auroras.— Approach of Summer.
— Breaking-up of the Ice. — Fort Yukon. — Furs.— Descent of the Yukon.— Value of Goods.— Arctic
and Tropical Life. — Moose-hunting.— Deer-corrals.— Lip Ornaments.— Canoes.— Four-post Coffin.
—The Kenaian Jndians.— The Aleuts.— Value of Alaska 277
CHAPTER XXVn.
THE ESQUIMAUX.
Their wide Extension. — Climate of the Regions they inhabit.— Their physical Appearance.— Their
Dress.— Snow Huts.— The Kayak, or the Baidar.— Hunting Apparatus and Weapons.— Enmity be-
tween the Esquimaux and the Red Indian. — The "Bloody Falls."— Chase of the Reindeer.— Bird-
catching. — Whale-hunting. — Various Stratagems employed to catch the Seal. — The " Keep-kuttuk."
— Bear-hunting. — Walrus-hunting. — Awaklok and Myouk.— The Esquimaux Dog.— Games and
Sports.— Angekoks.— Moral Character.— Self-reliance.— Intelligence.— Iligliuk. — Commercial Ea-
gerness of the Esquimaux.— Their Voracity.— Seasons of Distress 290
CHAPTER XXVin.
THE FUR-TRADE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY TERRITORIES.
The Coureur des Bois. — The Voj'ageur. — The Birch-bark Canoe. — The Canadian Fur-trade in the last
' Century. — The Hudson's Bay Company.^Bloody Feuds between the North-west Company of Can-
ada and the Hudson's Bay Company. — Their Amalgamation into a new Company in 1821. — Recon-
struction of the Hudson's Bay Company in 1863. — Forts or Houses. — The Attiha-wmeg. — Influence
of the Company on its savage Dependents. — The Black Bear, or Baribal. — The Brown Bear. — The
Grizzly Bear. — The Raccoon. — The American Glutton. — The Pine Marten. — The Pekan, or
Wood-shock.— The Chinga. — The Mink. — The Canadian Fish-otter. — The Crossed Fox.— The ^
Black or Silvery Fox. — The Canadian Lynx, or Pishu. —The Ice-hare. — The Beaver. — The
Musquash 304
CHAPTER XXIX.
THE CREE INDIANS, OR EYTHINYUWUK.
The various Tribes of the Crees.— Their Conquests and subsequent Defeat.— Their Wars with the Black-
feet.— Their Character.— Tattooing.— Their Dress.— Fondness for their Children.— The Cree Cradle.—
Vapor Baths.— Games.— Their religious Ideas.— The Cree Tartarus and Elysium 319
CHAPTER XXX,
THE TINNE INDIANS.
The various Tribes of the Tinne Indians.— The Dog-ribs.- Clothing.— The Hare Indians.— Degraded
State of the Women.— Practical Socialists.— Character.— Cruelty to the Aged and Infirm 327
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE LOUCHEUX, OR KUTCHIN INDIANS.
The Countries thej' inhabit.— Their Appearance and Dress.— Their Love of Finery.— Condition of the
Women.— Strange Customs.— Character. — Feuds with the Esquimaux. — Their suspicious and timo-
rous Lives. — Pounds for catching Reindeer. — Their Lodges Page 331
CHAPTER XXXn.
ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE CABOTS TO BAFFIN.
First Scandinavian Discoverer of America.— The Cabots.—Willoughby and Chancellor (1553-1554). —
Stephen Burrough (1556). — Frobisher (1576-1578). — Davis (1585-1587). — Barentz, Cornelis, and
Brant (1594). — Wintering of the Dutch Navigators in Nova Zembla (1596-1597). — John Knight
(1606).— Murdered by the Esfluimaux.— Henry Hudson (1607-1609).— Baffin (161G) 335
CHAPTER XXXIIL
ARCTIC VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY', FROM BAFFIN TO m'cLINTOCK.
Buchan and Franklin.— Ross and Parry (1818).— Discovery of Melville Island.— Winter Harbor (1819-
1820).— Franklin's first land Journey.— Dreadful Sufferings.— Parry's second Voyage (1821-1823).
Iligliuk. — Lyon (1824). — Parry's third Voyage (1824). — Franklin's second land Journey to the
Shores of the Polar Sea. — Beechey. — PaiTv's sledge Journey towards the Pole. — Sir John Ross's
second Journey.— Five Years in the Arctic Ocean.— Back's Discovery of Great Fish River.— Dease
and Simpson (1837-1839).— Franklin and Crozier's last Voyage (1845).— Searching Expeditions.—
Richardson and Rae.— Sir James Ross.— Austin.— Penny.— De Haven.— Franklin's first Winter-
quarters discovered by Ommaney.— Kennedy and Bellot.— Inglefield.— Sir E. Belcher.— Kellett.—
M'Clure's Discovery of the North-west Passage.— Collinson.— Bellot 's Death.— Dr. Rae learns tht
Death of the Crews of the " Erebus" and " Terror."— Sir Leopold M'Clintock 344
CHAPTER XXXIV.
KANE AND HAYES.
Kane sails up Smith's Sound in the "Advance " (185.3).— Winters in Rensselaer Bay.— Sledge Journey
along the Coast of Greenland. —The Three-brother Turrets.— Tennyson's IMonument.— The Great
Humboldt Glacier.— Dr. Hayes crosses Kennedy Channel. — Morton's Discovery of Washington
Land.— Mount Parry.— Kane resolves upon a second Wintering in Rensselaer Bay.— Departure and
Return of Part of the Crew.— Sufferings of the Winter.— The Ship abandoned.— Boat Journey to
Upernavik.— Kane's Death in the Havana (1857).— Dr. Hayes's Voyage in I860.— He winters at
Port Foulke. Crosses Kennedy Channel. — Reaches Cape Union, the most northern known Land
upon the Globe. — Koldewey.— Plans for future Voyages to the North Pole 365
' CHAPTER XXXV.
NEWFOUNDLAND.
Its desolate Aspect.— Forests.— Marshes.— Barrens.— Ponds.— Fur-bearing Animals.— Severity of Cli-
*^ mate.— St. John's.— Discovery of Newfoundland by the Scandinavians.— Sir Humphrey Gilbert.—
Rivalry of the English and French.— Importance of the Fisheries.— The Banks of Newfoundland.—
Mode of Fishing.— Throaters, Headers, Splitters, Suiters, and Packers.— Fogs and Storms.— Seal-
catching 376
CHAPTER XXXVI.
GREENLAND.
A mysterious Region. — Ancient Scandinavian Colonists. — Their Decline and Fall. — Hans Egede.— His
Trials and Success.— Foundation of Godthaab.— Herrenhuth Missionaries.— Lindenow,— The Scores-
bys.— Clavering.— The Danish Settlements in Greenland.— The Greenland Esquimaux.— Seal-catch- '
ing.— The White Dolphin.— The Narwhal.— Shark-fishery.— Fiskernasset.— Birds.— Reindeer-hunt-
ing.—Indigenous Plants.— Drift-wood.— Mineral Kingdom.— Mode of Life of the Greenland Esqui-
maux.— The Danes in Greenland.— Beautiful Scenery.— Ice Caves 382
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXXVir.
THEANTARCTICOCEAN.
Comparative View of tiie Antarctic and Arctic Regions.— Inferiority of Climate of the former.— Its
Causes.— Tlie New Shetland Islands.— South Georgia.— The Peruvian Stream.— Sea-birds.— The Gi-
ant Petrel.— The Albatross.— The Penguin.— The Austral Whale.— The Hunchback.- The Fin-back.
—The Grampus.— Battle with a Whale.— Tlie Sea-elephant.— The Southern Sea-bear.- The Sea-
leopard. — Antarctic Fishes Page 391
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
ANTARCTIC VOYAGKS OF DISCOVERY.
Cook's Discoveries in the Antarctic Ocean.— Bellinghausen.—Weddell — Biscoe.— Balleny.— Dumont
d'Urville.— Wilkes.— Sir James Ross crosses the Antarctic Circle on New Year's Dayj 1841.— Dis-
covers Victoria Land.— Dangerous Landing on Franklin Island.— An Eruption of Mount Erebus.—
The Great Ice Barrier.— Providential Escape.— Dreadful Gale.— Collision.— Hazardous Passage be-
tween two Icebergs.— Termination of the Voyage 401
CHAPTER XXXIX.
THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN,
Description of the. Strait.— Western Entrance.— Point Dungeness.— The Narrows.— Saint Philip's Bay.
—Cape Froward.—Grand Scenery.- Port Famine.— The Sedger River.— Darwin's Ascent of Mount
Tarn.— The Bachelor River.— English Reach.— Sea Reach.— South Desolation.— Harboi- of Mercy.—
Williwijws.— Discovery of the Strait by Magellan (October 20, 1521).— Drake.— Sarmiento.— Cav-
endish.—Schouten and Le Maire.— Byron.— Bougainville.— Wallis and Carteret.— King and Fitz-
-Settlement at Punta Arenas.— Increasing Passage through the Strait.— A future Highway of
408
roy.-
Commcrce ,
CHAPTER XL.
PATAGONIA AND THE PATAGONIANS.
Difference of Climate between East and West Patagonia.— Extraordinary Aridily of East Patagonia.—
Zoology.— The Guanaco.— The Tucutuco.— The Patagonian Agouti.— -Vultures.— The Turkey-buz-
zard.— The Carrancha.— The Chimango.— Darwin's Ostrich. —The Patagonians.— Exaggerated Ac-
counts of their Stature.— Their Physiognomy and Dress. — Religious Ideas.— Superstitions.— Astro-
nomical Knowledge.— Division into Tribes.— The Tent, or Toldo.— Trading Routes.— The great
Cacique.— Introduction of the Horse.— Industry. — Amusements. — Character 417
CHAPTER XLI.
THE FDEGI AN S.
Their miserable Condition. — Degradation of Body and Mind. — Powers of Mimicry. — Notions of Barter.
—Causes of their low State of Cultivation. — Their Food.— Limpets. — Cyttaria Darioini.— Constant
Migrations. — The Fuegian Wigwam.— Weapons. — Their probable Origin. — Their Number, and va-
rious Tribes.— Constant Feuds. — Cannibalism.— Language.— Adventures of Fuegia Basket, Jemmy
Button, and York Minster.— Missionary Labors.— Captain Gardiner.— His lamentable End. . . . 425
CHAPTER XLII.
CHARLES FRANCIS HALL AND THE INNUITS.
Hall's Expedition.— His early Life.— His reading of Arctic Adventure.— His Resolve.— His Arctic Out-
iit.— Sets sail on the "George Henrj^."- The Voyage.— Kudlago.—Holsteinborg, Greenland.— Pop-
ulation of Greenland.— Sails for Davis's Strait.— Character of the Innuits.— Wreck of the "Rescue."
— Ebierbing and Tookoolito.— Their Visit to England.— Hall's first Exploration.— European and In-
nuit Life in the Arctic Regions.— Building an Igloo.— Almost Starved.— Fight for Food with Dogs.
—Ebierbing arrives with a Seal.— How he caught it.— A Seal-feast.— The Innuits and Seals.— The
Polar Bear.— How he teaches the Innuits to catch Seals.— At a Seal-hole.— Dogs as Seal-iinnters.—
Dogs and Bears.— Dogs and Reindeers.— Innuits and Walruses.— More about Igloos.— Innuit Imple-
ments.—Uses of the Reindeer. — Innuit Improvidence. — A Deer-feast.— A frozen Delicacy.— Whale-
skin as Food.— Whale-gum.— How to eat Whale Ligament. — Raw Meat. —The Dress of the Innuits.
V CONTENTS.
—A pretty Style.— Religious Ideas of the Inmiits.— Their kindly Character.— Treatment of the
Aged and Infirm.— A Woman abandoned to die.— Hall's Attempt to rescue her.— The Inuuit Nomads,
■without any form of Government.— Their Numbers diminishing.— A Sailor wanders away.— Hall's
Search for him.— Finds him frozen to death.— The Ship free from Ice.— Preparations to return.—
Reset in the Ice-paclj. — Another Arctic Winter.— Breaking up of the Ice.— Departure for Home.—
Tookoolito and her Child •' Butterfly."— Death of " Butterfly."— Arrival at Home.— Results of Hall's
Expedition.— Innuit Traditions.— Discovery of Frobisher Relics.— Hall undertakes a second Expedi-
tion.—His Statement of its Object and Prospects.— Last Tidings of Hall Page 433
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
^ PAGE
1. Esquimaux Doar-team : ...Hai-l. 1
2. The Tundra of "Siberia Atkinson."- 17
3. ludian Summer Encampment, Alaska Whympku. 18
4. Rocks and Ice »Hall. 20
5. Coast of Labrador Harper b Mag. 21
6. Coast of Norway Browne. 22
T. Arctic Forest Lamont. 28
8. Verge of Forest Region Harper s Mag. 24
9. Forest Conflasratiou ^ uymper. 26
10. Arctic Clotliiug.
.Harper's Mag. 29
11. Arctic Moonlight ■ ■ ; • H ai-i,. 30
12. Aurora seen in Norway Harper s Mag. 81
13. Aurora seen in Greenland Hall. Al
14. Group of Reindeer Lamont. 35
15. Elks JJ,"""- 39
16. The Musk-ox ■■■■^^ oon. 40
17 Aro-ali Atkinson. 41
is! The Suo\TOwi---'- •■•■•■■•■••■••■•■■ ••■•••••••• Wood. 43
19. Beruide Goose ^*'°''- If
20. The Sea-eagle - ;^'?°"- ^
21. Arctic Navfgation Harper s Mag. 45
22. Among Hummocks Harper s Mag. 46
23. Drifting on the Ice Harper s^Iag. 47
24. Forms of Icebergs
Iall. 47
5. Gothic Icebergs .
.m
26. Pinnacle Icebergs Hall. 48
27. Icebergs aground Hall. 49
28. Icebergs and Glacier, Frobisher Bay • • • • U'^'-t. oi
29. Glacier, Bute Inlet ^V uymper. 52
30. Scaling an Iceberg. : hall, sd
31. An Arctic Channel g'^i-^- ^^
32. Open Water JIall. 57
33. Glacier Discharging .Hall. 5b
34. The Whale S.**""" f.
35. The Narwhal ; • Wood. 61
36. Walruses on the Ice Lamont. 6d
37. Home of the Polar Bear Wood. 66
38. The Gull Wood. 67
39. Lava-flelds Browne. 68
40. Efflgy in Lava Browne. 70
41. The Strokkr Browne. 72
42. Entrance to the Almannagja Browne. 7d
43. The Almannagja Browne. 74
44. The Hrafuagia Browne. ii5
45. The Tintrou Rock Browne. ^5
46. Fall of the Oxeraa Browne. .6
47. Icelandic Horses Browne. 81
4S. Shooting Reindeer Lajiont. 82
49. The Eider-duck Wood. 83
50. The Jyrfalcon Wood. 85
51. The Giant Auk Wood. 86
52. Cathedral at Reykjavik Browne. 89
53. Thingvalla, Logberi; and Almauuatrja Browne. 9a
54. Reykjavik, the^CaiVital of Iceland .: Browne. 98
55. Governor's Residence, Reykjavik Browne. 99
56. Icelandic Houses Browne. 103
57. Church at Thingvalla Browne. 105
5S. The Pastor's House, Thingvalla Browne. 106
59. The Pastor of Thingvalla Browne. 107
60. Bridge River, Iceland '. Browne. Ill
61. Icelandic Bog Browne. 113
62. Coast of Iceland Browne. 114
63. Westman Isles Browne. 115
64. Home of Sea-birds Browne. 117
65. Fishing in Norway Browne. 120
66. Norweliaii Farm Browne. 122
67. Steaming along the Coast Browne, lid
68. The Puflin Wood. 124
69. The Dovrefjeld .Browne. 12.
70. Midnight Sun off Spitzbergen Ddfferin. Ui
71. Magdilena Bay, Spitzbergen Dufferin. 134
72. Bunal in Spitzbergen Dufferin. 139
73.' Arctic Pox... '....!"... '.■.■.".■.■.■.■-..■ Dufferin.
140
Lamont. 143
74. Chase of tl^ Walrus ^
75. A glimpse of Jau Meyen's Island Dufferin.
145
xvi LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
76. A Samoiede Priest : Atkinson. 179
77. Banks of the Inysch Atkinson. 185
78. Group of Kirghis Atkinson. 188
79. View of Tagilsk Atkinson. 191
80. The Beach at Nicolayevsk Harper's Mao. 196
81. On the Amoor Haepek's Mag. 197
82. Village ou the Amoor Harper's Mag. 198
83. Koriak Yourt Haupee's Mag. 199
84. Kamchatka Sables Haepee's Mag. 201
85. Tartar Eocampmeut Atkinson. 204
86. Siberian Peasant Atkinson. 207
87. View of Irkutsk Harper's Mag. 209
83. A Jakut Village Harper's Mag. 2'29
89. Bering's Monument at Petropavlosk Whympek. 248
90. Church at Petropavlosk Wuympeb. 254
91. View of Petropavlosk ^ ]] .'harper's Mag.' 257
92. Dogs Fishing Harper's Mag. 259
93.^og-team M'uy jiper. 259
94. Dogs Towiug Boat .Harper's Mag. 260
95. Frame-work of Tchuktchi House. Wuymper. 262
96. Tchuktchi Cauoe Harper's Mag. 203
97. Tchuktchi Pipe Wuymper. 264
98. An Aleut Whympee. 268
99. View of Sitka Whymper. 270
100. A Baidar Harper's Mag. 272
101. Fort St. Michael Wuymper. 277
102. The Frozen Yukon ....Whymper. 279
103. Under-ground House Why-mper. 280
104. Fish-traps on the Yukon Wuymper. 281
105. Aurora atNuIato .' ...... ..Wumve-r. 282
106. Breaking up of the Ice Whymper. 283
107. Fort Yukon Wuymper. 285
lOS. A Deer Corral Wuymper. 286
109. Lip Ornaments Harper's Mag. 287
110. A Baidar Harper's Mag. 288
111. Four-post Coffin Whymper. 288
112. Tanana Indian Wii ympee. 289
113. Winter Hut of Hunters Mieton. 309
114. Fort Edmonton, North Saskatchewan Milton 311
115. Trader's Camp .' Haepee's Mag." 312
110. Swamp formed by deserted Beaver Dam Milton. 314
117. Hunting Bison in the Snow Harper's Mag. 319
118. Herd of Bison Harper's Mag. 320
119. Driving Bison over a Precipice Harper's Mag. 321
120. Watching for Crees Milton. 322
121. A Cree Village Harper's Mag. 324
122. The Albatross Wood. 396
123. Strait of Magellan Harper's Mag. 408
124. A Highway of Commerce -. Harper's Mag. 416
125. Patagonians Harper's Mag. 417
126. Coast of Fuegia Harper's Maq. 425
127. Fuegian Traders Harper's Mag. 427
128. A Fnegian and his Food Harper's Mag. 429
129. Starvation Beach Harper's Mag. 432
130. Surveying iu Greenland Hall. 433
131. Hall and Companions, in lunuit Costume Hall. 434
132. Kudlago Hall. 436
133. Greenland Currency Hall. 437
134. Woman and Child. (Drawn and Engraved by an Innuit.) Hall. 438
135. Festival of the Birthday of the King'of Denmark Hall. 439
136. Preparing Boot-soles Hall. 440
137. Wreck of the Rescue Hall. 441
138. The George Henry laid up for the Winter Hall. 442
139. Storm-bound Hall. 443
140. lunuit Stone Lamp Hall. 444
141. Fighting for Food Hall. 445
142. Through the Snow Hall. 446
143. Waiting by a Seal-hole Hall. 447
144. Looking for Seals Hall. 448
145. lunuit Strategy to Capture a Seal Hall. 449
146. Seal-hole and Igloo Hall. 450
147. Waiting for a Blow Hall. 460
148. Dog and Seal Hall. 451
149. Spearing through the Snow Hall. 452
150. Dogs and Bear Hall. 463
151. Barbekark and the Reindeer «. Hall. 454
152. Head of Reindeer Hall. 454
153. Spearing the Walrus Hall. 455
154. Innuit Igloos Hall. 456
155. Walrus Skull and Tusks .'Hall. 457
156. The Woman's Knife Hall. 457
157. Innuit Implements Hall. 4.58
158. Finding the Dead Hall. 461
159. Innuit Summer Villaire Hall. 462
160. Returniug to the Ship Hall. 463
161. Over the Ice : Hall. 404
162. The Frozen Sailor Hall. 405
163. Farewell of the Innuits Hall. 4G7
THE POLAR WORLD
TUE TUNDKA OF SIBERIA.
CHAPTER I.
THE ARCTIC LANDS.
The barren Grounds or Tundri. — Abundance of animal Life on the Tundri in Summer.— Their Silence
and Desolation in Winter. — Protection afforded to Vegetation by the Snow. — Flower-growth in
the higliest Latitudes. — Character of Tundra Vegetation. — Southern Boundary-line of the barren
Grounds. — Their Extent. — The forest Zone. — Arctic Trees. — Slowness of their Growth. — Monotonj'
of the Northern Forests. — Mosquitoes. — The various Causes which determine the Severity of an
Arctic Climate. — Insular and Continental Position. — Currents. — Winds. — Extremes of Cold observed
by Sir E. Belcher and Dr. Kane.— How is Man able to support the Rigors of an Arctic Winter?—
Proofs of a milder Climate having once reigned in the Arctic Regions. — Its Cause according to
Dr. Oswald Heer. — Peculiar Beauties of the Arctic Regions. — Sunset.— Long lunar Nights.— The
Aurora.
A GLANCE at a map of the Arctic regions shows us that many of the
-^-*- rivers belonging to the three continents — Europe, Asia, America— dis-
charge their Avaters into the Polar Ocean or its tributary bays. The terri-
tories drained by these streams, some of which (such as the Mackenzie, the
Yukon, the Lena, the Yenisei, and the Obi) rank among the giant rivers of
the earth, form, along with the islands within or near the Arctic circle, the
vast region over which the frost-king reigns supreme.
Man styles himself the lord of the earth, and may with some justice lay
claim to the title in more genial lands where, armed with the plough, he com-
pels the soil to yield him a variety of fruits ; but in those desolate tracts
2
18
THE POLAR WORLD.
which are winter-bound during the greater part of the year, lie is generally a
mere w^anderer over its surface — a hunter, a fisherman, or a herdsman — and
but few small settlements, separated from each other by immense deserts
give proof of his having made some weak attempts to establish a footing.
It is difficult to determine with precision the limits of the Arctic lands since
many countries situated as low as latitude 60° or even 50°, such as South
Greenland, Labrador, Alaska, Kamchatka, or the country about Lake Baikal,
have hi their climate and productions a decidedly Arctic character, while others
of a far more northern position, such as the coast of Norway, enjoy even in
winter a remarkably mild temperature. But they are naturally divided into
two principal and well-marked zones — that of the forests, and tliat of the tree-
less wastes.
The latter, comprising the islands within the Arctic Circle, form a belt, more
or less broad, bounded by the continental shores of the North Polar seas, and
gradually merging toward the south into the forest-region, which encircles
them with a garland of evergreen conifer^.' This treeless zone bears the
name of the " barren grounds," or the " barrens," in North America, and of
" tundri " in Siberia and European Russia. Its want of trees is caused not
so much by its high northern latitude as by the cold sea-winds which sweep
unchecked over the islands or the flat coast-lands of the Polar Ocean, and
for miles and miles compel even the hardiest plant to crouch before the blast
and creep along the ground.
Nothing can be more melancholy than the aspect of the boundless morasses
or arid wastes of the tundri. Dingy mosses and gray lichens form the chief
THE ARCTIC LANDS. 19
vegetation, and a few scanty grasses or dwarfish flowers that may have found
a refuge in some more sheltered spot are unable to relieve the dull monotony
of the scene.
In winter, when animal life has mostly retreated to the south or sought a
refuge in burrows or in caves, an awful silence, interrupted only by the hooting
of a snow-owl or the yelping of a fox, reigns over their vast expanse; but in
spring, when the brown earth reappears from imder the melted snow and the
swamps begin to thaw, enormous flights of wild birds appear upon the scene
and enliven it for a few months. An admirable instinct leads their winged
legions from distant climes to the Arctic wildernesses, where in the morasses
or lakes, on the banks of the rivers, on the flat strands, or along the fish-teem-
ing coasts, they find an abundance of food, and where at the same time they
can with greater security build their nests and rear their young. Some re-
main on the skirts of the forest-region ; others, flying farther northward, lay
their eggs upon the naked tundra. Eagles and hawks follow the traces of the
natatorial and strand birds; troops of ptarmigans roam among the stunted
bushes ; and when the sun shines, the finch or tlie snow-bunting warbles his
merry note.
While thus the Avarmth of summer attracts hosts of migratory birds to tlie
Arctic wildernesses, shoals of salmon and sturgeons enter the rivers in obe-
dience to the instinct that forces them to quit the seas and to swim stream
upward, for the purpose of depositing their spawn in the tranquil sweet wa-
ters of the stream or Jake. About this time also the reindeer leaves the
forests to feed on the herbs and lichens of the tundra, and to seek along the
shores fanned by the cooled sea-breeze some protection against the attacks of
the stinging flies that rise in myriads from the swamps. Thus during several
months the tundra presents an animated scene, in which man also plays his
part. The birds of the air, the fishes of the water, the beasts of the earth, are
all obliged to pay their tribute to his various wants, to appease his hunger, to
clothe his body, or to gratify his greed of gain.
But as soon as the first frosts of September announce the approach of win-
ter, all animals, with but few exceptions, hasten to leave a region Avhere the
sources of life must soon fail. The geese, ducks, and swans return in dense
flocks to the south ; the strand-birds seek in sorne lower latit^jde a softer soil
which allows their sharp beak to seize a burrowing prey; the water-fowl for-
sake the bays and channels that will soon be blocked up with ice; the reindeer
once more return to the forest, and in a short time nothing is left that can in-
duce man to prolong his stay in the treeless plain. Soon a thick mantle of
snow covers the hardened earth, the frozen lake, the ice-boiind river, and con-
ceals them all — seven, eight, nine months long — under its monotonous pall,
except where the furious north-east wind sweeps it away and lays bare the
naked rock.
This snow, which "after it has once fallen persists until the long summer's
day has effectually thawed it, protects in an admirable manner the vegetation
of the higher latitudes against the cold of the long winter season. For snow
is so bad a conductor of heat, tliat in mid-winter in the higli latitude of 78°
20 THE POLAR WORLD.
ROCKS AND ICE.
50' (Rensselaer Bay), while the surface temperature was as low as —30°, Kane
found at two feet deep a temperature of - 8°, at four feet +2°, and at eight
feet +26°, or no more than six degrees below the freezing-point of water.
Thus covered by a warm crystal snow-mantle, the northern plants pass the long
Avinter in a comparatively mild temperature, high enough to maintain their life,
while, without, icy blasts — capable of converting mercury into a solid body —
howl over the naked wilderness ; and as the first snow-falls are more cellular
and less condensed than the nearly impalpable powder of winter, Kane justly
observes that no " eider-down in the cradle of an infant is tucked in more
kindly than the sleeping-dress of winter about the feeble plant-life of the Arc-
tic zone." Thanks to this protection, and to the influence of a sun which for
months circles above the horizon, and in favorable localities calls forth the pow-
ers of vegetatioi* in an incredibly short time, even Washington, Grinnell Land,
and Spitzbergen are able to boast of flowers. Morton plucked a crucifer at
Cape Constitution (80° 45' N. lat.), and, on the banks of Mary Minturn River
(78° 52'), Kane came across a flower-growth which, though drearily Arctic in
its type, was rich in variety and coloring. Amid festuca and other tufted
grasses twinkled the purple lychnis and the white star of the chickweed ; and,
not without its pleasing associations, he recognized a solitary hesperis — the
Arctic representative of the wall-flowers of home.
Next to the lichens and mosses, which form the chief vegetation of the
treeless zone, the cruciferre, the grasses, the saxifragas, the caryophyllte, and
the compositae are the families of plants most largely represented in the barren
grounds or tundri. Though vegetation becomes more and more uniform on
advancing to the north, yet the number of individual plants does not decrease.
THE ARCTIC LANDS. 21
When the soil is moderately dry, the surface is covered by a dense carpet of
lichens {Cormcularice), mixed in damper spots with Icelandic moss. In more
tenacious soils, other plants flourish, not however to the exclusion of lichens, ex-
cept in tracts of meadow ground, which occur in sheltered situations, or in the
C*^^
lAST OF LABKADUK.
alluvial inundated flats where tall reed-grasses or dwarf willows frequently
grow as closely as they can stand.
It may easily be supposed that the boundary-Une which separates the tun-
dri from the forest zone is both indistinct and irregular. In some parts where
the cold sea-winds have a Avider range, the barren grounds encroach consider-
22
THE POLAR WORLD.
ably upon the limits of the forests ; in others, where the configuration of the
laud jM-events their action, the woods advance farther to the north.
Thus the barren grounds ahain their most southerly limit in Labrador,
where they descend to latitude 57°, and this is sufticiently explained by the
position of tliat bleak peninsula, bounded on three sides by icy seas, and washed
'by cold currents from the north. On the opposite coasts of Hudson's Bay
they begin about 60°, and thence gradually rise toward the mouth of the
Mackenzie, where the forests advance as high as 68°, or even still farther to the
north along the low banks of that river. From the Mackenzie the barrens
again descend until they reach Bering's Sea in 65° N". On the opposite or
Asiatic shore, in the land of the Tchuktchi, they begin again more to the south,
in 63°, thence continually rise as far as the Lena, where Anjou found trees in
71° N,, and then fall again toward the Obi, where the forests do not even reach
the Arctic circle. From the Obi the tundri retreat farther and farther to the
north, until finally, on the coasts of Norway, in latitude 70°, they terminate
with the land itself.
Hence we see that the treeless zone of Europe, Asia, and America occupies
a space larger than the whole of Europe. Even the African Sahara, or the
Pampas of South America, are inferior in extent to the Siberian tundri. But
the possession of a few hundred square miles of fruitful territory on the south-
western frontiers of his vast empire would be of greater value to the Czar than
that of those boundless wastes, which are tenanted only by a few Avretched
pastoral tribes, or some equally wretched fishermen.
The Arctic forest-regions are of a still greater extent than the vast treeless
plains wliich they encircle. When we consider that they form an almost con-
COAST OF NORWAY
THE ARCTIC LANDS.
w
tiniious belt, stretching through three parts of the world, in a breadth of from
15° to 20°, even the woods of the Amazon, wliich cover a snrface fifteen times
greater than that of the United Kingdom, shrink into comparative insignifi-
cance. Unlike the tropical forests, which are characterized by an immense
variety of trees, these northern woods are almost entii'ely composed of conif-
eraa, and one single kind of fir or pine often covers an immense extent of
24
THE POLAR WORLD.
(ground. The European and Asiatic species differ, however, from those whicli
grow in America.
Thus in the Russian empire and Scandinavia we find the Scotch fir {Pinus
sylvestris), the Siberian fir and larch {Abies sihlrica, Larix sibirica), the Picea
obovata, and the Pimis cembra ; while in the Hudson's Bay territories the
woods principally consist of the white and black spruce {Abies alba and
nigra), the Canadian larch {Zarix canadensis, and the gray pine {Pinus
banksiana). In both continents birch-trees grow farther to the north than
the conifer^e, and the dwarf willows form dense thickets on the shores of every
river and lake. Various species of the service-tree, the ash, and the elder are
also met with in the Arctic forests ; and both under the shelter of the woods
and beyond their limits, nature, as if to compensate for the want of fruit-trees,
produces in favorable locaUties an abundance of bilberries, bogberries, cran-
berries, etc. {Empetrum, Vaccinium), whose fruit is a great boon to man and
beast. When congealed by the autumnal frosts, the berries frequently remain
hanging on the bushes until the snow melts in the following June, and are
then a considerable resource to the flocks of water-fowl migrating to their
northern breeding-places, or to the bear awakening from his winter sleep.
^m
VEKGE OF FOREST REGION.
THE ARCTIC LANDS. 25
Another distinctive character of the forests of the high latitudes is their
apparent youth, so that generally the traveller would hardly suppose them to
be more than fifty years, or at most a ceiftury old. Their juvenile appearance
increases on advancing northward, until suddenly their decrepit age is re-
vealed by the thick bushes of lichens which clothe or hang down from their
shrivelled boughs. Farther to the south, large trees are found scattered here
and there, but not so numerous as to modify the general appearance of the
forest, and even these are mere dwarfs when compared with the gigantic firs
of more temperate climates. This phenomenon is sufficiently explained by the
shortness of the summer, which, though able to bring forth new shoots, does
not last long enough for the formation of wood. Hence the growth of trees
becomes slower and slower on advancing to the north ; so that on the banks
of the Great Bear Lake, for instance, 400 years are necessary for the formation
of a trunk not thicker than a man's w^aist. Toward the confines of the tundra,
the woods are reduced to stunted stems, covered with blighted buds that have
been unable to develop themselves into branches, and which prove by their
numbers how frequently and how vainly they have striven against the wind,
until finally the last remnants of arboreal vegetation, vanquished by the blasts
of winter, seek refuge under a carpet of lichens and mosses, from which their
annual shoots hardly venture to peep forth.
A third peculiarity which distinguishes the forests of the north from those
of the tropical world is what may be called their harmless character. There
the traveller finds none of those noxious plants whose juices contain a deadly
poison, and even thorns and prickles are of rare occurrence. No venomous
snake glides through the thicket ; no crocodile lurks in the swamp ; and the
northern beasts of prey — the bear, the lynx, the wolf — are far less dangerous
and blood-thirsty than the large felidse of the torrid zone.
The comparatively small number of animals living in the Arctic forests
corresponds with the monotony of their vegetation. Here we should seek in
vain for that immense variety of insects, or those troops of gaudy birds which
in the Brazilian woods excite the admiration, and not unfrequently cause the
despair of the wanderer ; here we should in vain expect to hear the clamorous
voices that resound in the tropical thickets. No noisy monkeys or quarrel-
some parrots settle on the branches of the trees ; no shrill cicadse or melan-
choly goat-suckers interrupt the solemn stillness of the night ; the howl of the
hungry wolf, or the hoarse screech of some solitary bird of prey, are almost
the only sounds that ever disturb the repose of these awful solitudes. "When
the tropical hurricane sweeps over the virgin forests, it awakens a thousand
voices of alai-m ; but the Arctic storm, however furiously it may blow, scarce-
ly calls forth an echo from the dismal shades of the pine-woods of the north.
In one respect only the forests and swamps of the northern regions vie in
abundance of animal life with those of the equatorial zone, for the legions of
gnats. which the short polar summer calls forth from the Arctic morasses are a
no less intolerable phgue than the mosquitoes of the tropical marshes.
Though agriculture encroaches but little upon the Arctic woods, yet the
agency of man is gradually working a change in their aspect. Large tracts ol
26
THE POLAR WORLD.
forest are eontiiinally wasted by extensive fires, kindled accidentally or inten-
tionally, which spread with rapidity over a wide extent of country, and con-
tinue to burn until they are extinguished by a heavy rain. Sooner or later a
new growth of timber springs up, but the soil, being generally enriched and
saturated with alkali, now no longer brings forth its aboriginal firs, but gives
birth to a thicket of beeches {Betula alba) in Asia, or of aspens in America.
THE ARCTIC LANDS. 27
The line of perpetual snow may naturally be expected to descend lower and
lower on advancing,to the pole, and hence many mountainous regions or ele-
vated plateaux, such as the interior of Spitzbergen, of Greenland,^ of Nova
Zembla, etc., which in a more temperate clime would be verdant with woods
or meadows, are here covered with vast fields of ice, from which frequently
glaciers- descend down to the verge of the sea. But even in the highest north-
ern latitudes, no land has yet been found covered as far as the water's edge
with eternal snow, or where winter has entirely subdued the powers of vegeta-
tion. The reindeer of Spitzbergen find near 80° N. lichens or grasses to feed
upon ; in favorable seasons the snow melts by the end of June on the plains of
Melville Island, and numerous lemmings, requiring vegetable food for their sub-
sistence, inhabit the deserts of New Siberia. As far as man has reached to the
north, vegetation, when fostered by a sheltered situation and the refraction of
solar heat from the rocks, has everywhere been found to rise to a considerable
altitude above the level of the sea ; and should there be land at the North Pole,
th'ere is every reason to believe that it is destitute neither of animal nor vege-
table life. It would be equally erroneous to suppose that the cold of winter in-
variably increases as we near the pole, as the temperature of a land is influ-
enced by many other causes besides its latitude. Even in the most northern
regions hitherto visited by man, the influence of the sea, particularly when fa-
vored by warm currents, is found, to mitigate the severity of the winter, while
at the same time it diminishes the warmth of summer. Ontthe other hand,
the large continental tracts of Asia or America that shelve toward the pole
have a more intense winter cold and a far greater summer's heat than many
coast-lands or islands situated far nearer to the pole. Thus, to cite but a few
examples, the western shores of Nova Zembla, fronting a wide expanse of sea,
have an average winter temperature of only —4°, and a mean summer temper-
ature but little above the freezing-point of water (+36i°), while Jakutsk, sit-
uated in the heart of Siberia, and 20° nearer to the Equator, has a winter of
—36° 6', and a summer of +66° 6'. *
The influence of the winds is likewise of considerable importance in de-
termining the greater or lesser severity of an Arctic climate. Thus the north-
erly winds which prevail in Baflin's Bay and Davis's Straits during the sum-
mer months, and fill the straits of the American north-eastern Archipelago with
ice, are probably the main cause of the abnormal depression of temperature in
that quarter ; while, on the contrary, the sou,therly winds that prevail during
summer in the valley of the Mackenzie tend greatly to extend the forest of
that favored region nearly down to the shores of the Arctic Sea. Even in the
depth of a Siberian winter, a sudden change of wind is able to raise the ther-
mometer from a mercury-congealing cold to a temperature above the freezing-
point of water, and a warm wind has been known to cause rain to fall in Spitz-
bergen in the month of January.
The voyages of Kane and Belcher have made us acquainted with the low-
est temperatures ever felt by man. On Feb. 5, 1854, while the former Avas
wintering in Smith's Sound (78° 37' N: lat.), the mean of his best spirit-ther-
mometer showed the unexampled temperature of —68° or 100° below the
28 THE POLAR WORLD.
freezing-point of Avater. Then chloric ether became solid, and carefully pre-
pared chloroform exhibited a granular pellicle on its surface. The exhalations
from the skin invested the exposed or partially clad parts with a wreath of
vapor. The air had a perceptible pungency upon inspiration, and every one,
as it were involuntarily, breathed guardedly with compressed lips. About the
same time (February 9 and 10, 1854), Sir E. Belcher experienced a cold of
—55° in Wellington Channel (75° 31' N.), and the still lower temperature of
— 62° on January 13, 1853, in Northumberland Sound (76° 52' N.). Whym-
per, on December 6, 1866, experienced —58 at Nulatto, Alaska (64° 42' N.).
Whether the temperature of the air descends still lower on advancing to-
ward the pole, or whether these extreme degrees of cold are not sometimes
surpassed in those mountainous regions of the north which, though seen, have
never yet been explored, is of course an undecided question : so much is cer-
tain, that the observations hitherto made during the winter of the Arctic re-
gions have been limited to too short a time, and are too few in number, to en-
able us to determine with any degree of certainty those points where the
greatest cold prevails. All we know is, that beyond the Arctic Circle, and
eight or ten degrees farther to the south in the interior of the continents of
Asia and America, the average temperature of the winter generally ranges from
— 20° to —30°, or even lower, and for a great part of the year is able to con-
vert mercury into a solid body.
It may well h^ asked how man is able to bear the excessively low tempera-
ture of an Arctic winter, which must appear truly appalling to an inhabitant
of the temperate zone. A thick fur clothing ; a hut small and low, where the
warmth of a fire, or simply of a train-oil lamp, is husbanded in a narrow space,
and, above all, the wonderful power of the human constitution to accommodate
itself to every change of climate, go far to counteract the rigor of the cold.
After a very few days the body develops an increasing warmth as the ther-
mometer descends ; for the air being condensed by the cold, the lungs inhale
at every breath a greater quantity of oxygen, which of course accelerates the
internal process of combustion, while at the same time an increasing appetite,
gratified with a copious supply of animal food, of flesh and fat, enriches the
blood and enables it to circulate more vigorously. Thus not only the hardy
native of the north, but even the healthy traveller soon gets accustomed to
bear without injury the rigors of an Arctic Avinter.
" The mysterious compensations," says Kane, " by which we adapt our-
selves to climate are more striking here than in the tropics. In the Polar zone
the assault is immediate and sudden, and, unlike the insidious fatality of hot
countries, produces its results rapidly. • It requires lordly a single winter to
tell who are to be the heat-making and acclimatized men. Petersen, for in-
stance, who has resided for two years at Upernavik, seldom enters a room with
a fire. Another of our party, George Riley, with a vigorous constitution, es-
tablished habits of free exposure, and active cheerful temperament, has so
inured himself to the cold, that he sleeps on our sledge journeys without a
blanket or any other covering than his walking suit, while the outside tem-
perature is —30°."
THE ARCTIC LANDS.
29
There are many proofs that a milder climate once reigned in the northern
regions of the globe. Fossil pieces of wood, petrified acorns and fir-cones
ARCTIC CLOTHING.
liave been found in the interior of Banks's Land by M'Clure's sledging-parties.
At Anakerdluk, in North Greenland (70° N.), a large forest lies buried on a
mountain surrounded by glaciers, 1080 feet above the level of the sea. Not
only the trunks and branches, but even the leaves, fruit-cones, and seeds have
been preserved in the soil, and enable the botanist to determine the species of
the plants to which they belong. They show that, besides firs and sequoias,
oaks, plantains, elms, magnolias, and even laurels,.indicating a climate such as
that of Lausanne or Geneva, flourished during the miocene period in a coun-
try where now even the willow is compelled to creep along the ground. Dur-
ing the same epoch of the earth's history Spitzbergen was likewise covered
with stately forests. The same poplars and the same swamp-cypress ( Taxo-
dium duhium) which then flourished in North Greenland have been found in
a fossilized state at Bell Sound (76° N.) by the Swedish naturalists; who also
tliscovered a plantain and a linden as high as 78° and 79° in King's Bay — a
proof that in those times the climate of Spitzbergen can not have been colder
30
THE POLAR WORLD.
than that which now reigns in Southern Sweden and Norway, eighteen degrees
nearer to the Une.
We know that at present the fir, the poplar, and the beech grow fifteen de-
grees farther to the north than the phintain — and the miocene period no doubt
exhibited the same proportion. Tlius tlie poplars anjd firs which then grew
in Spitzbergen along with plantains and lindens juust have ranged as far as
the pole itself, supposing that point to be dry land.
In the miocene times the Arctic zone evidently presented a very different
aspect from that Avhich it wears at present. Now, during the greater part of
the year, an immense glacial desert, which through its floating bergs and drift-
ice depresses the temperature of countries situated far to the south, it then
consisted of verdant lands covered with luxuriant forests and bathed by an
open sea.
What may have been the cause of these amazing changes of climate ? The
readiest answer seems to be — a different distribution of sea and land ; but
there is no reason to believe that in the miocene times there was less land in
the Arctic zone than at present, nor can any possible combination of water and
dry land be imagined sufficient to account for the growth of laurels in Green-
land or of plantains in Spitzbergen. Dr. Oswald Ileer is inclined to seek for
an explanation of the phenomenon, not in mere local terrestrial changes, but in
a difference of the earth's position in the heavens.
We now know that our sun, with his attendant planets and satellites, per-
forms a vast circle, embracing perhaps hundreds of tliousands of years, round
another star, and tliat we are constantly entering new regions of spnce untrav-
THE ARCTIC LANDS.
31
elled by our earth before. We come from the unknown, and plunge into the
unknown ; but so much is certain, that our solar system rolls at present through
a space but thinly peopled with stars, and there is no reason to doubt that it
may once have wandered through one of those celestial provinces where, as
the telescope shows us, constellations are far more densely clustered. But,
as every star is a blazing sun, the greater or lesser number of these heavenly
bodies must evidently have a proportionate influence upon the temperature of
space; and thus we may suppose that during the miocene period our earth,
being at that time in a populous sidereal region, enjoyed the benefit of a
higher temperature, which clothed even its poles with verdure. In the course
of ages the sun conducted his herd of planets into more solitary and colder
regions, which caused the warm miocene times to be followed by the glacial
period, during which the Swiss flat lands bore an Arctic character, and finally
the sun emerged into a space of an intermediate character, which determines
the present condition of the climates of our globe.
Though Nature generally wears a more stern and forbidding nspcct on ad-
vancing toward the pole, yet the liigh latitudes have many beauties of their
THE POLAR WORLD.
^mm
own. Xothing can exceed the magnificence of an Arctic sunset, clotliing tlit
snow-clad mountains and the skies with all the glories of color, or be more
serenely beautiful than the clear star-light night, illumined by the brilliant
inoon, which for days continually circles around the horizon, never setting until
THE ARCTIC LAITOS. 33
she has run her long course of brightness. The uniform Avhiteness of the land-
scape and the general transparency of the atmosphere add to the lustre of her
beams, which serve the natives to guide their nomadic life, and to lead them
to their hunting-grounds.
But of all the magnificent spectacles that relieve the monotonous gloom of
the Arctic winter, there is none to equal the magical beauty of the Aurora.
Night covers the snow-clad earth ; the stars glimmer feebly thi-ough the haze
which so frequently dims their brilliancy in the high latitudes, when suddenly
a broad and clear bow of light spans the horizon in the direction where it is
traversed by the magnetic meridian. This bow sometimes remains for several
hours, heaving or waving to and fro, before it sends forth streams of light
ascending to the zenith. Sometimes these flashes proceed from the bow of
light alone; at others they simultaneously shoot forth from many opposite
parts of the horizon, and form a vast sea of fire whose brilliant waves are con-
tinually changing their positit)n. Finally they all unite in a magnificent crown
or copula of light, with the appearance of which the phenomenon attains its
highest degree of splendor. The brilliancy of the streams, which are com-
monly red at their base, green in the middle, and light yellow toward the
/enith, increases, while at the same time they dart with greater vivacity through
the skies. The colors are wonderfully transparent, the red approaching to a
clear blood-red, the green to a pale emerald tint. On turning from the flaming
firmament to the earth, this also is seen to glow with a magical light. The
dark sea, black as jet, forms a striking contrast to the white snow-plain or the
distant ice-mountain ; all the outlines tremble as if they belonged to the
unreal world of dreams. The imposing silence of the night heightens the
charms of the magnificent spectacle.
But gradually the crown fades, the bow of light dissolves, the streams be-
come shorter, less frequent, and less vivid ; and finally the gloom of winter
once more descends upon the northern desert.
3
34 THE POLAR WORLD.
CHxPTER II.
ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
The Reindeer. — Strticture of ita Foot. — Clattering Noise when walking. — Antlers. — Extraordinary
olfactory Powers. — The Icelandic jNIoss. — Present and Former Range of the Reindeer. — Its invalu-
able Qualities as an Arctic domestic Animal. — Revolts against Oppression. — Enemies of the Rein-
deer.—The Wolf.— The Glutton or Wolverine.— Gad-flies.— The Elk or Moose-deer. — The Musk-
ox.— The Wild Sheep of the Rocky Mountains.— The Siberian Argali.— The Arctic Fox.— Its Bur-
rows.— The Lemmings. — Their Migrations and Enemies. — Arctic Anatidaa. — The Suow-bunting. —
The Lapland Bunting. — The Sea-eagle. — Drowned by a Dolphin.
THE reindeer may Avell be called the camel of the northern wastes, for it is
a no less valuable companion to the Laplander or to the Samojede than the
" ship of the desert" to the wandering Bedouin. It is the only member of the
numerous deer family that has been domesticated by man ; but though un-
doubtedly the most useful, it is by no means the most comely of its race. It^
clear, dark eye has, indeed, a beautiful expression, but it has neither the noble
proportions of the stag nor the grace of the roebuck, and its thick square-form-
ed body is far from being a model of elegance. Its legs are short and thick,
its feet broad, but extremely well adapted for walking over the snow or on a
swampy ground. The front hoofs, which are capable of great lateral expansion,
curve upward, while the two secondary ones behind (which are but sUghtly
developed in the fallow deer and other members of the family) are considera-
bly prolonged : a structure which, by giving the animal a broader base to stand
upon, prevents it from sinking too deeply into the snow or the morass. Had
the foot of the reindeer been formed like that of our stag, it would have been
as unable to drag the Laplander's sledge with such velocity over the yielding
snow-fields as the camel would be to perform his long marches through the
desert without the broad elastic sole-pad on which he firmly paces the unsta-
ble sands.
The short legs and broad feet of the reindeer likewise enable it to swim with
greater ease — a power of no small importance in countries abounding in rivers
and lakes, and where the scarcity of food renders perpetual migrations necessa-
ry. When the reindeer walks or merely moves, a remarkable clattering sound
is heard to some distance, about the cause of which naturalists and travellers
by no means agree. Most probably it results from the great length of the two
digits of the cloven hoof, which when the animal sets its foot upon the ground
separate widely, and when it again raises its hoof suddenly clap against each
other.
A lopg mane of a dirty Avhite color hangs from the neck of the reindeer. In
summer the body is brown above and white beneath ; in winter, long-haired
and white. Its antlers are very different from those of the stag, having broad
palmated summits, and branching back to the length of three or four feet.
QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
35
1:1
Mtaiyiiiiii
Their weight is frequently very considerable— twenty or twenty-five pounds ;
and it is remarkable that both sexes have horns, while in all other members of
tlie deer race the males alone are in possession of this ornament or weapon.
The female brings forth in May a single calf, rarely two. This is small and
weak, but after a few days it follows the mother, who suckles her young but a
36 THE POLAR WORLD.
short time, as it is soon able to seek and to find its food. The reindeer gives
very little milk — at the very utmost, after the young has been Aveaned, a bottle-
ful daily ; but the quality is excellent, for it is uncommonly thick and nutritious.
It consists almost entirely of cream, so that a great deal of water can be added
.before it becomes inferior to the best cow-milk. Its taste is excellent, but the
butter made from it is rancid, and hardly to be eaten, while the cheese is very
good.
The only food of the reindeer during winter consists of moss, and the most
surprising circumstance in his history is the instinct, or the extraordinary olfac-
tory powers, whereby he is enabled to discover it when hidden beneath the
snoAV. However deep the Lichen rangiferinus may be buried, the animal is
aware of its presence the moment he comes to the spot, and this kind of food
is never so agreeable to him as when he digs for it himself. In his manner of
doing this he is remarkably adroit. Having first ascertained, by thrusting his
muzzle into the snow, Avhether the moss lies below or not, he begins making a
hole with his fore feet, and continues working until at length he uncovers the
lichen. No instance has ever occurred of a reindeer making such a cavity with-
out discovering the moss he seeks. In summer their food is of a different na-
ture ; they are then pastured upon green herbs or the leaves of trees. Judg-
ing from the lichen's appearance in the hot months, when it is dry and brittle,
one might easily wonder that so large a quadruped as the reindeer should
make it his favorite food and fatten upon it ; but toward the month of Septem-
ber the lichen becomes soft, tender, and damp, with a taste like wheat-bran. In
this state its luxuriant and flowery ramifications somewhat resemble the leaves
of endive, and ai'e as white as snow.
Though' domesticated since time immemorial, the reindeer has only partly
been brought under the yoke of man, and wanders in large wild herds both in
the North American wastes, where it has never yet been reduced to servitude,
and in the forests and tundras of the Old World.
In America, where it is called " caribou," it extends from Labrador to Mel-
ville Island and Washington Land ; ?ii Europe and Asia it is found from Lap-
land and Norway, and from the mountains of Mongolia and the banks of the
, Ufa, as far as Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen. Many centuries ago-— probably
during the glacial period— its range was still more extensive, as reindeer bones
are frequently found in French and German caves, and bear testimony to the
severity of the climate which at that time reigned in Central Europe ; for the
reindeer is a cold-loving animal, and will not thrive under a milder sky. All
attempts to prolong its life in our zoological gardens have failed, and even iu
the royal park at Stockholm Hogguer saw some of these animals, which were
quite languid and emaciated during the summer, although care had been
taken to provide them Avith a cool grotto to which they could retire during the
warmer hours of the day. In summer the reindeer can enjoy health only in the
fresh mountain air or along the bracing sea-shore, and has as great a longing for
a, low temperature as man for the genial Avarmth of his fireside in Avinter.
The reindeer is easily tamed, and soon gets accustomed to its master, Avhose
society it loves, attracted as it Avere by a kind of innate sympathy ; for, unlike
THE ARCTIC LANDS. 37
all other domestic animals, it is by no means dependent on man for its subsist-
ence, but finds its nourishment alone, and wanders about freely in summer and
in winter without ever being inclosed in a stable. These* qualities are inesti-
mable in countries where it would be utterly impossible to keep any domestic
animal requiring shelter and stores of provisions during the long winter months,
an# make the reindeer the fit companion of the northei'n nomad, whose simple
wants it almost wholly supplies. During his wanderings, it carries his tent and
scanty household furniture, or drags his sledge over the snow. On account of the
weakness of its back-bone, it is less fit for riding, and requires to be mounted with
care, as a violent shock easily dislocates its vertebral column ; the saddle is placed
on the haunches. You would hardly suppose the reindeer to be the same animal
when languidly creeping along under a rider's weight, as when, unencumbered
by a load, it vaults with the lightness of a bird over the obstacles in its way to
obey the call of its master. The reindeer can be easily trained to drag a sledge,
but great care must be taken not to beat or otherwise ill-treat it, as it then be-
comes obstinate, and quite unmanageable. When forced to drag too heavy a
load, or taxed in any way above its sti-ength, it not seldom turns round upon
its tyrant, and attacks him with its horns and fore feet. To save himself from
its fury, he is then obliged to overtm-n his sledge, and to seek a refuge under
its bottom until the rage of the animal has abated.
After the death of the reindeer, it may truly be said that every part of its
body is put to some use. The flesh is very good, and the tongue and marrow
are considered a great delicacy. The blood, of which not a drop is allowed to
be lost, is either drunk warm or made up into a kind of black pudding. The
skin furnishes not only clothing impervious to the cold, but tents and bedding ;
and spoons, knife-handles, and other household utensils are made out of the
bones and horns ; the latter serve also, like the claws, for the preparation of an
excellent glue, which the Chinese, who buy them for this purpose of the Rus-
sians, use as a nutritious jelly. In Tornea the skins of new-born reindeer are
prepared and sent to St. Petersburg to be manufactured into gloves, which are
extremely soft, but very dear.
Thus the cocoa-nut palm, the tree of a hundred uses, hardly renders a
greater variety of services to the islanders of the Indian Ocean than the rein-
deer to the Laplander or the Samojede ; and, to the honor of these barbarians
be it mentioned, they treat their invaluable friend and com^yanion with a grate-
ful affection which might serve as an example to far more civilized nations.
The reindeer attains an age of from twenty to twenty-five years, but in its
domesticated state it is generally killed when from six to ten years old. Its
most dangerous enemies are the wolf, and the glutton or wolverine ( Gulo ho-
realis or «rc«ici<s), which belongs to the bloodthirsty marten and weasel family,
and is said to be of uncommon fierceness and strength. It is about the size
of a large badger, between which animal and the pole-cat it seems to be inter-
mediate, nearly resembling the former in its general figure and aspect, and
agreeing with the latter as to its dentition. No dog is capable of mastering
a glutton, and even the wolf is hardly able to scare it from its prey. Its feet
are very short, so that it can not run swiftly, but it climbs Avith great facility
38 TIffi POLAR WORLD.
upon trees, or ascends even almost i^erpendicular rock-walls, where it also seeks
a refuge when pursued.
When it perceives a herd of reindeer browsing near a wood or a precipice,
it generally lies in wait upon a branch or some high cliff, and springs down
upon the first animal that comes vtithin its reach. Sometimes also it steals
unawares upon its prey, and suddenly bounding upon its back, kills it by a #n-
o-le bite in the neck. Many fables worthy of Munchausen have been told about its
voracity ; for instance, that it is able to devour two reindeer at one meal, and
that, when its stomach is exorbitantly distended with food, it will press itself
between two trees or stones to make room for a new repast. It will, indeed,
kill in one night six or eight reindeer, but it contents itself with sucking their
blood, as the weasel does with fowls, and eats no more at one meal than any
other carnivorous animal of its own size.
Besides the attacks of its mightier enemies, the reindeer is subject to the
persecutions of two species of gad-fly, which torment it exceedingly. The
one {CEstrus tarandi), called Hurbma by the Laplanders, deposits its glutinous
eggs upon the animal's back. The larvae, on creeping out, immediately bore
themselves into the skin, where by their motion and suction they cause so
many small swellings or boils, which gradually grow to the size of an inch or
more in diameter, with an opening at the top of each, through which the larvae
may be seen imbedded in a purulent fluid. Frequently the whole back of the
animal is covered with these boils, which, by draining its fluids, produce ema<
ciation and disease. As if aware of this danger, the reindeer runs wild and fu-
rious as soon as it hears the buzzing of the 'fly, and seeks a refuge in the nearest
water. The other species of gad-fly ( CEstrus nasalis) lays its eggs in the nostrils
of the reindeer ; and the larvffi, boring themselves into the fauces and beneath the
tongue of the poor animal, are a great source of annoyance, as is shown by its
frequent sniffling and shaking of the head.
A pestilential disorder like the rinderpest will sometimes sweep away whole
herds. Thus in a few weeks a rich Laplander or Samojede may be reduced to
poverty, and the proud possessor of several thousands of reindeer be compel-
led to seek the precarious livelihood of the northern fisherman.
The elk or moose-deer {Cervus alces) is another member of the cervine race
peculiar to the forests of the north. In size it is far superior to the stag, but it
can not boast of an elegant shape, the head being disproportionately large, the
neck short and thick, and its immense horns, which sometimes weigh near fifty
pounds, each dilating almost immediately from the base into a broad palmated
form; while its long legs, high shoulders, and heavy upper lip hanging very
much over the lower, give it an uncouth appearance. The color of the elk is a
dark grayish-brown, but much paler on the legs and beneath the tail.
We owe the first description of this gigantic deer to Julius Cassar, in whose
time it was still a common inhabitant of the German forests. But the conquer-
or of Gaul can hardly have seen it himself, or he would not have ascribed to it
a single horn, placed in the middle of the forehead, or said that both sexes are
perfectly alike, for the female is smaller and has no antlers. At present the
elk is still found in the swampy forests of East Prussia, Lithuania, and Po-
ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
40
THE POLAR WORLD.
land, but it cLiefly resides in the more northern woods of Russia, Siberia,
and America. It is a mild and harmless animal, principally supporting itself
by browsing the boughs of willows, asps, service-trees, and other soft spe-
cies of wood. It does not, like the reindeer, seek a refuge against the at-
tacks of the gad-flies, by wandering to the coasts of the sea, or retreating to
the bare mountains, where it would soon perish for the want of adequate food,
but plunges up to the nose into the next river, where it finds, moreover, a spe-
cies of water-grass {Festuca Jluitans) which it Hkes to feed upon. Though
naturally mild and harmless, it displays a high degree of courage, and even fe-
rocity when suddenly attacked ; defending itself with great vigor, not only with
its horns, but also by striking violently with its fore feet, in the use of which
it is particularly dexterous. It is generally caught in traps, as it is extremely
shy and watchful, and finds an easy retreat in the swamp or the forest. The
only time of the year when it can be easily chased is in the spring, when the
softened snow gets covered during the night with a thin crust of ice which is
too weak to bear the animal's weight.
Though not ranging so far north as the reindeer or the elk, we find in the
Old World the red-deer {Cervus ekqyhus), in the vicinity of Drontheim, in Nor-
way, and along with the roebuck beyond Lake Baikal, in Siberia, while in
America the large-eared dieev {Cervus macrotis), and the Wapiti, or Canada stag
{Cervus strongylo-ceras), extend their excursions beyond 55° of northern lati-
tude. The latter is much larger and of a stronger make than the European
red-deer, frequently growing to the height of our tallest oxen, and possessing
great activity as well as strength. The flesh is little prized, but the hide, Avhen
made into leather after the Indian fashion, is said not to turn hard in drying
after being wet— a quality which justly entitles it to a preference over almost
every other kind of leather.
One of the most remarkable quadrupeds of the high northern regions is the
musk-ox {Ovibos moschatus), which
by some naturalists has been consid-
ered as intermediate between the
sheep and the ox. It is about the
height of a deer, but of much stout-
^/ '^'^ "^^^^^^^^ G1-' proportions. The horns are very
broad at the base, almost meeting
on the foi'ehead, and curving down-
vv^ard between the eye and ears un-
til about the level of the mouth,
when they turn upward. Its long
thick brown or black hair hanging-
down below the middle of the leg,
and covering on all parts of the ani-
mal a fine kind of soft ash-colored
wool, which is of the finest description, and capable of forming the most beau-
tiful fabrics manufactured, enables it to remain even during the winter beyond
V0° of northern latitude. In spring it wanders over the ice as far as Melville
ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
41
Island, or even Smith's Sound, where a number of its bones were foupd by
Dr. Kane. In September it withdraws more to the south, and spends tlie
coldest months on the verge of the forest region. Like the reindeer, it sub-
sists chiefly on lichens and grasses. It runs nimbly, and climbs hills and rocks
Avith great ease. Its fossil remains, or those of a very analogous species, have
been discovered in Siberia : at present it is exclusively confined to the New
World.
In the Rocky Mountains, from the Mexican Cordillera plateaux as far as 68°
N. lat., dwells the wild sheep ( Ovis montana), distinguished by the almost cir-
cular bend of its large, triangular, transversely striped horns, from its relative
the Siberian argali ( Ovis argali), which is supposed to be the parent of our do-
mestic sheep, and far surpasses it in size and delicacy of flesh. Both the Amer-
ican and the Asiatic wild sheep are in the highest degree active and vigorous,
ascending abrupt precipices with great agility, and, like the wild goat, going
over the narrowest and most dangerous passes with perfect safety.
Among the carnivorous quadrupeds of the northern regions, many, like the
lynx, the wolf, the bear, the glutton, and other members of the weasel tribe,
have their head-quarters in the forests, and only occasionally roam over the tun-
43 THE POLAR WORLD.
dras ; but the Arctic fox ( Cams lagopus) almost exclusively inhabits the treeless
wastes that f i-inge the Polar Ocean, and is found on almost all the islands that lie
buried in its bosom. This pretty little creature, which in winter grows per-
fectly white, knows how to protect itself against the most intense cokl, either by
seeking a refuge in the clefts of I'ocks, or by burrowing to a considerable depth
in a sandy soil. It principally preys upon lemmings, stoats, polar hares, as
well as upon all kinds of water-fowl and their eggs ; but when pinched by
hunger, it does not disdain the carcasses of fish, or the molluscs and crustaceans
it may chance to pick up on the shore. Its enemies are the glutton, the snow)''
owl, and man, who, from the Equator to the poles, leaves no creature unmolested
that can in any way satisfy his wants.
The lemmings, of which there are many species, are small rodents, peculiar
to the Arctic regions, both in the New and in the Old World, where they are
found as far to the north as vegetation extends. They live on grass, roots, the
shoots of the willow, and the dAvarf birch, but chiefly on lichens. They do not
gather hoards of jjrovisions for the winter, but live ujjon what they find be-
neath the snow. They seldom prove injurious to man, as the regions they in-
habit are generally situated beyond the limits of agriculture. From the voles,
to whom they are closely allied, they are distinguished by having the foot-sole
covered with stiff hairs, and by the strong crooked claws with which their fore
feet are armed. The best known species is the Norwegian lemming {Lemmiis
norwegicus), which is found on the high mountains of the Dovrefjeld, and
farther to the north on the dry parts of the tundra, where it inhabits small
burrows under stones or in the moss. Its long and thick hair is of a tawny
color, and prettily marked with l^lack spots. The migrations of the lemming
have been grossly exaggerated by Olaus Magnus and Pontoppidan, to whom
the natural history of the North owes so many fables. As they breed several
times in the year, producing five or six at a birth, they of course multiply very
fast under favorable circumstances, and are then forced to leave the district
which is no longer able to afford them food. But this takes place very sel-
dom, for when Mr. Brehm visited Scandinavia, the people on the Dovrefjeld
knew nothing about the migrations of the lemming, and his inq-uiries on the
subject proved equally fruitless in Lapland and in Finland. At all events, it is
a fortunate circumstance that the lemmings have so many enemies, as their
rapid multiplication might else endanger the balance of existence in the northern
regions. The inclemencies of the climate are a chief means for keeping them
in check. A wet summer, an early cold and §nowless autumn destroy them
by milhons, and then of course years are necessary to recruit their numbers.
With the exception of the bear and the hedgehog, they are pursued by all the
northern carnivora. The wolf, the fox, the glutton, the marten, the ermine
devour them with avidity, and a good lemping season is a time of unusual
plenty for the hungry Laplander's dog. The snowy owl, whose dense plumage
enables it to be a constant resident on thQ tundra, almost exclusively frequents
those places where lemmings, its favorite food, are to be found ; the buzzards
are constantly active in their destruction ; the croAV feeds its young with lem-
mings ; and even the poor Lap, when pressed by hunger, seizes a stick, and.
ARCTIC LAND QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.
43
for want of better game, goes out lemming-hunting, and rejoices when he can
kill a sufficient number for his dinner.
Several birds, such as the snowy owl and the ptarmigan {Lagopus alhus),
which can easily procure its food under the snow, winter in the highest lati-
tudes ; but by far the greater number are merely summer visitants of the Arc-
tic regions. After the little bunting, the first arrivals in spring are the snow-
geese, who likewise are the first to leave the dreary regions of the north on
their southerly migration. The common and king eider-duck, the Brent geese,
TUE SNOWY OWL.
the great northern black and red throated divers, are the next to make their
appearance, followed by the pintail and longtail ducks {Aoias caudacuta and
f/lacialis), the latest visitors of the season. These birds generally take their
departure in the same order as they arrive. The period of their stay is but
short, but their presence imparts a wonderfully cheerful aspect to regions at
other times so deserted and dreary. As soon as the young are sufficiently
fledged, they again betake themselves to the southward ; the character of the
season much influencing the period of their departure.
As far as man has penetrated, on the most northern islets of Spitzbergen,
or on the ice-blocked shores of Kennedy Channel, the eider-duck and others
of the Arctic anatidte build their nests ; and there is no reason to doubt that
if the pole has breeding-places for them, it re-echoes with their cries. Nor
need they fear to plunge into the very heart of the Arctic zone, for the flight
of a goose being forty or fifty miles an hour, these birds may breed in the re-
motest northern solitude, and in a few hours, on a fall of deep autumn snow,
convey themselves by their swiftness of wing to better feeding-grounds.
One of the most interesting of the Arctic birds is the snow-bunting {Plec-
trophanes nivalis), which may properly be called the polar singing-bird, as it
breeds in the most northern isles, such as Spitzbergen. and Novaja Zemlya, or
44
THE POLAR WORLD.
BEKNIDE GOOSE.
on the highest mountains of the Dovrefjeld, in Scandinavia, w^here it enlivens
the fugitive summer with its short but agreeable notes, sounding doubly sweet
from the treeless wastes in which they are heard. It invariably builds its
nest, which it lines with feathers and down,
in the fissures of mountain rocks or under
large stones, and the entrance is generally
so narrow as merely to allow the parent
birds to pass. The remarkably dense win-
ter plumage of the snow-bunting especially
qualifies it for a northern residence, and
when in captivity it will rather bear the
severest cold than even a moderate degree
of warmth. In its breeding-places it lives
almost exclusively on insects, particularly
gnats : during the winter it feeds on all
sorts of seeds, and then famine frequently compels it to wander to a less rig-
orous climate. *
The Lapland bunting {Centrojyhanes ?a^:>2:)0wzcivith equal rapidity in an opposite direction
— when masses not seldom twenty or thirty miles in diamater, and each weigh-
ing many millions of tons, clash to-
gether, imagination can hardly con-
ceive a more appalling scene. The
whalers at all times require unremit-
ting vigilance to secure their safety,
but scarcely in any situation so much
as when navigating amidst these
fields, which are more particularly
dangerous in foggy weather, as their
motions can not then be distinctly ob-
served. No wonder that since the
establishment of the fishery numbers
of vessels have been crushed to pieces
between two fields in i^jotion, for the
strongest ship ever built must needs
Some have been ujilifted and thrown
upon the ice ; some have had their hulls completely torn open ; and others
have been overrun by the ice, and buried beneath the fragments piled upon
their wreck.
The icebei'gs, which, as their name ,
indicates, rise above the water to a J7^ 3-r"-.— ==_ .
much more considerable height than
the ice-fields, have a very different or- ^
igin, as they are not formed in the J^
sea itself, but by the glaciers of the
northern highlands. As our rivers
are continually i:)Ouring their streams " ,^, ?:^
into the ocean, so many of the gla- "- 0
ciers or ice-rivers of the Arctic zone, -_ ^
descending to the water-edge, are
sloAvly but constantly forcing them-
selves farther and farther into the
sea. In the summer season, when ^ -^ ^
the ice is particularly fragile, the
force of cohesion is often overcome
by the weight of the prodigious mass-
es that overhang the sea or have been
undermined by its waters ; and in the
winter, when the air is probably 40°
or 50° below zero and the sea from
28° to 30° above, the unequal expan-
sion of those i:)arts of the mass ex-
posed to so great a difference of temperature can not fail to produce tlie sep-
aration of large portions.
m
FORMS OF ICEBERGS.
TPIE ARCTIC SEAS.
49
Most of these swimming glacier-fragments, or icebergs, which are met willi
by the Avhaler in the Northern Atlantic, are formed on the mountainous west
coast of Greenland by the large glaciers which discharge themselves into the
fiords from Smith's Sound to Disco Bay, as here the sea is sufficiently deep to
float them away, in S2)ite of the enormous magnitude they frequently attain.
As they drift along down Baffin's Bay and Davis's Strait, they not seldom' run
ICEBERGS AGROUNX>.
aground on some shallow shore, where, bidding defiance to the short summer,
they frequently-remain for many a year.
Dr. Hayes measured an immense iceberg which had stranded off the little
harbor of Tessuissak, to the north of Melville Bay. The square wall which
faced toward his base of measurement Avas 315 feet high, and a fraction over
three-quarters of a mile long. Being almost square-sided above the sea, the
same shape must have extended beneath it ; and since, by measurements made
two days before, Hayes had discovered that fresh-water ice floating in salt wa-
ter has above the surface to below it the proportion of one to seven, this crys-
. tallized mountain must have gone aground in a depth of nearly half a mile, A
4
50 THE POLAR WORLD.
ruJe estimate of its size, made on the spot, gave in cubical contents about 27,000
millions of feet, and in weight something like 2000 millions of tons !
Captain Ross in his first voyage mentions another of these wrecked bergs,
which was found to be 4169 yards long, 3689 yards broad, and 51 feet high
above the level of the sea. It was aground in 61 fathoms, and its weight was
estimated by an officer of the " Alexander" at 1,292,397,673 tons. On ascend-
ing the flat top of this iceberg, it was found occupied by a huge white bear,
who justly deeming " discretion the best part of valor," sprang into the sea be-
fore he could be fired at. :
The vast dimensions of the icebergs appear less astonishing when we con-
sider that many of the glaciers or ice-rivers from which they are dislodged are
equal in size or volume to the largest streams of continental Europe. .
Thus one of the eight glaciers existing in the district of Omenak, in Green-
land, is no less than an English mile broad, and forms an ice-wall rising 160
feet above the sea. Further to the north, Melville Bay and Whale Sound are
the seat of vast ice-rivers. Here Tyndall glacier forms a coast-line of ice over
two miles long, almost burying its face in the sea, and carrying the eye along a
broad and winding valley, up steps of ice of giant height, until at length the
slope loses itself in the miknown ice-desert beyond. But grand above all is the
magnificent Humboldt glacier, which, connecting Greenland and Washington
Land, forms a sohd glassy wall 300 feet above the water-level, with an unknown
depth below it, while its curved face extends full sixty miles in length fi-om
Cape Agassiz to Cape Forbes. In the temperate zone it would be one of the
mightiest rivers of the earth ; here, in the frozen solitudes of the North, it slow-
ly drops its vast fragments into the waters, making the solitudes around re-echo
with their fall.
As the Polar shores of continental America and Siberia are generally flat,
and below the snow-line, they are consequently deprived both of glaciers and
of the huge floating masses to which these give birth.
In a high sea the waves beat against an iceberg as against a rock ; and in
calm weather where there is a swell, the noise made by their rising and falling
is tremendous. Their usual form is that of a high, vertical wall, gradually
sloping down to the opposite side, which is very low ; but frequently they ex-
hibit tie most fantastic shapes, particularly after they have been a long time
exposed to the corroding power of the waves, or of warm rains pelting them
from above. »
A'number of icebergs floating in the sea is one of the most magnificent
spectacles of nature, but the wonderful beauty of these crystal cliffs never ap-
pears to greater advantage than when clothed by the midnight sun with all the
splendid colors of twilight.
" The bergs,"" says Dr. Hayes, describing one of these enchanting nights,
" had wholly lost their chilly aspect, and glittering in the blaze of the brilliant
heavens, seemed in the distance like masses of burnished metal or solid flame.
IN'earer at hand they were huge blocks of Parian marble inlaid with mammoth
gems of pearl and opal. One in particular exhibited the perfection of the
grand. Its form was not unlike that of the Colosseum, and it lay so far away
THE ARCTIC SEAS.
1
Jiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
that hcaif its height was buried beneatli the line of blood-red waters. The sun,
slowly rolling along the horizon, passed behind it, and it seemed as if the
old Roman ruins had suddenly taken fire. In the shadow of the bergs the
water was a rich green, and nothing could be more soft and tender than the
gradations of color made by the sea shoaling on the sloping tongue of a bero-
52
THE POLAR WORLD.
GLVCinK, BLTE INLET.
close beside us. The tint increased in intensity where the ice overhnng the
water, and a deep cavern near by exhibited the solid color of the malachite min-
gled with the transparency of the emerald, while in strange contrast a broad
streak of cobalt blue ran diagonally through its body. The bewitching charac-
ter of the scene was heightened by a thousand little cascades which leaped into
the sea from these floating masses, the water being discharged from lakes of melt-
ed snow and ice which reposed in quietude far up in the valleys separating the
high icy hills of their upper surface. From other bergs large pieces were now
and then detached, plunging down into the Avater with deafening noise, while
the slow moving swell of the ocean resounded through their broken archways."
A similar gorgeous spectacle was witnessed by Dr. Kane in Melville Bay.
The midnight sun came ovtt over a great berg, kindling variously-colored fires
on every part of its surface, and making the ice around the ship one great re-
splendency of gem work, blazing carbuncles and rubies, and molten gold.
In the night the icebergs are readily distinguished even at a distance by
their natural effulgence, and in foggy weather by a peculiar blackness in the
atmosphere. As they are not unfrequently drifted by the Greenland stream
considerably to the south of Newfoundland, sometimes even as far as the for-
tieth or thirty-ninth degree of latitude (May, 1841, June, 1842), ships sailing
through the north-western Atlantic require to be always on their guard against
them. The ill-fated " President," one of our first ocean-steamers, which was
lost on its Avay to New York, without leaving a trace behind, is supposed to
liave been sunk by a collision with an iceberg, and no doubt many a gallant
liark has either foundered in the night, or been hurled by the storm against
these floating rocks.
THE ARCTIC SEAS.
53
But though often dangerous neighbors, the bergs occasionally prove useful
auxiliaries to the mariner. From their greater bulk lying below the water-
line, they are either drifted along by the under-current against the wind, or,
from their vast dimensions, are not perceptibly influenced even by the strongest
gale, but, on the contrary, have the appearance of moving to windward, because
every other kind of ice is drifted rapidly past them. Thus in strong adverse
winds, their broad masses, fronting the storm like bulwarks, not seldom afford
protecti'on to ships mooring under their lee.
Anchoring to a berg is, however, not always unattended with danger, par-
ticularly when the summer is fai- advanced, or in a lower latitude, as all ice be-
comes exceedingly fragile when acted on by the sun or by a temperate atmos-
SCALING AN ICEBEKGr.
phere. The blow of an axe then sometimes suffices to rend an iceberg asunder,
and to bury the careless seaman beneath its ruins, or to hurl him into the yawn-
ing chasm.
Thus Scoresby relates the adventure of two sailors who were attempting to
fix an anchor to a berg. They began to hew a hole into the ice, but scai-cely
had the first blow been struck, when suddenly the immense mass split from top
to bottom and fell asunder, the two halves falling in contrary directions with a
prodigious crash. One of the sailors, who was possessed of great presence of
mind, immediately scaled the huge fragment on which he was standing, and
remained rocking to and fro on its summit until its equilibrium was restored ;
but his companion, falling between the masses, would most likely have been
crushed to pieces if the current caused by their motion had not swept him
within reach of the boat that was waiting for them.
Frequently "large pieces detach themselves spontaneously from an iceberg
54 THE POLAR WORLD.
aiul fall into the sea with a tremendous noise. When this circumstance, callecl
" calvhig," takes place, the iceberg loses its equilibrium, sometimes turns on
one side, and is occasionally inverted.
Dr. Hayes witnessed the crumbling of an immense berg, resembling in its
general appearance the Bi-itish House of Parliament. First one lofty tower
came tumbling into the Avater, starting from its surface an immense flock of
gulls ; then another followed ; and at length, after five hours of rolling and
crashing, there remained of this splendid mass of congelation not a fragment
that rose fifty feet above the water.
One of the most remarkable phenomena of the Polar Sea is the ice-blink, or
reflection of the ice against the sky. A stripe of light, similar to the early
dawn of morning, but without its redness, appears above the horizon, and traces
a complete aerial map of the ice to a distance of many miles beyond the ordi-
nary reach of vision. To the experienced navigator the " blink " is frequently
of the greatest use, as it not only points out the vicinity of the drift-ice, but
indicates its nature, Avhether compact or loose, continuous or open. Thus
Scoresby relates that on the Tth of June, 1821, he saw so distinct an ice-blink,
that as far as twenty or thirty miles all round the liorizon he was able to ascer-
tain the figure and probable extent of each ice-field. The packed ice was dis-
tinguished from the larger fields by a more obscure and yellow color ; Avhile
each water-lane or open passage was indicated by a deep blue stripe or patch.
By this means he Avas enabled to find his way out of the vast masses of ice in
which he had been detained for several days, and to emerge into the open sea.
The tendency of the pack-ice to separate in calm Aveather, so that one might
almost be tempted to believe in a mutual repulsive power of the individual
blocks, is likewise favorable to the Arctic navigator. The perpetual daylight
of summer is another advantage, but unfortunately the sun is too often veiled
by dense mists, Avhich frequently obscure the air for weeks together, particular-
ly in July. These fogs, Avhich are a great impediment to the whaler's opera-
tions, have a very depressing influence upon the spirits ; and as they are at-
tended Avith a loAv temperature, AA'hich even at noon does not rise much above
freezing-point, the damp cold is also physically extremely unpleasant.
At other times the sun SAveeps two or three times round the pole without
being for a moment obscured by a cloud, and then the transparency of the air
is such that objects the most remote may be seen perfectly distinct and clear,
A ship's top-gallant mast, at the distance of five or six leagues, may be discern-
ed Avhen just appearing aboA-e the horizon Avith a common perspective-glass,
and the summits of mountains are visible at the distance of from sixty to a
hundred miles.
On such sunny days, the strong contrasts of light and shade between the
glistening snow and the dark protruding rocks produce a remarkable deception
in the apparent distance of the land, along a steep mountainous coast. When
at the distance of tAventy miles from Spitzbergen, for instance, it Avould be easy
to induce CA'en a judicious stranger to undertake a passage in a boat to the
shore, from a belief that he Avas Avithin a league of the land. At this distance
the portions of rock and patches of snoAV, as Avell as the contour of the different
THE ARCTIC SEAS. 55
hills, are as distinctly marked as similar objects in many other countries, not
having snow about them, would be at a fourth or a fifth part of the distance.
Nothing can be more wonderful than the phenomena of the atmosphere de-
pendent on reflection and refraction, which are frequently observed in the Arc-
tic seas, particularly at the commencement or approach of easterly winds. They
are probably occasioned by the commixture, near the surface of the land or sea,
of two streams of air of different temperatures, so as to occasion an irregular
deposition of imperfectly condensed vapor, which when passing the verge of the
horizon apparently raises the objects there situated to a considerable distance
above it, or extends their, height beyond their natural dimensions. Ice, land,
ships, boats, and other objects, when thus enlarged and elevated, are said to
loom. The lower part of looming objects are sometimes connected with the
horizon by an apparent fibrous or columnar extension of their parts; at other
times they appear to be quite lifted into the air, a void space being seen between
them and the horizon.
A most remarkable delusion of this kind was observed by Scoresby while
sailing through the open ice, far from land. Suddenly an immense amphitheatre
inclosed by high walls of basaltic ice, so like natural rock as to deceive one of
his most experienced officers, rose around the ship. Sometimes the refraction
produced on all sides a similar effect, but still more frequently remarkable con-
trasts. Single ice-blocks expanded into architectural figures of an extraordina-
ry height, and sometimes the distant, deeply indented ice-border looked like a
number of towers or minarets, or like a dense forest of naked trees. Scarcely
had an object acquired a distinct form, when it began to dissolve into another.
It is well known that similar causes produce similar effects in the warmer
regions of the earth. In the midst of the tropical ocean, the mariner sees ver-
dant islands rise from the waters, and in the treeless desert fantastic palm-
groves wave their fronds, as if in mockery of the thirsty caravan.
When we consider the intense cold which reigns during the gi-eatest part of
the year in the Arctic regions, we might naturally, expect to find the Avhole of
the Polar Sea covered, during the winter at least, with one solid' unbroken sheet
of ice. But experience teaches us that this is by no means the case ; for the
currents, the tides, the winds, and the swell of a turbulent ocean are mighty
causes of disruption, or strong impediments to congelation. Both Lieutenant
de Haven and Sir Francis M'Clintock* Avere helplessly carried along, in the
depth of winter, by the pack-ice in Lancaster Sound and Baffin's Bay. A
berg impelled by a strong under-current rips open an ice-field as if it were a
thin sheet of glass ; and in channels, or on coasts Avhere the tides rise to a con-
siderable height, their flux and reflux is continually opening crevices and lanes
in the ice which covers the waters. That even in the highest latitudes the sea
does not close except when at rest, was fully experienced by Dr. Hayes during
his wintering at Port Foulke ; for at all times, even when the temperatm-e of
the air was below the freezing-point of mercury, he could hear from the deck
of his schooner the roar of the beating waves. From all these causes there
has at no point within the Arctic Circle been found a firm ice-belt extending,
* Soo Chapter XXXII.
56
THE POLAR WORLD.
AN ARCTIC CHANNET..
either in winter or in summer, more than from fifty to a hundred miles from
land. And even in the narrow channels separating the islands of the Parry
Archipelago, or at the mouth of Smith Sound, the waters will not freeze over,
except when sheltered by the land, or when an ice-pack, accumulated by long
continuance of winds from one quarter, affords the same protection.
But the constant motion of the Polar Sea, wherever it expands to a consider-
THE ARCTIC SEAS.
57
able breadth, would be insufficient to prevent its total congelation, if it were
not assisted by other physical causes. A magnificent system of currents is
continually displacing the waters of the ocean, and forcing the warm floods of
the troi^ical regions to wander to the pole, while the cold streams of the frigid
zone are as constantly migrating toward the Equator. Thus we see the Gulf
Stream flowing through the broad gateway east of Spitzbergen, and forcing
out a return current of cold water to the west of Spitzbergen, and through
Davis's Strait.
The comparatively warm floods which, in consequence of this great law of
cii-culation, come pouring into the Arctic seas, naturally require some time
before they are sufficiently chilled to be converted into ice ; and as sea-water
has its maximum of density, or, in other words, is heaviest a few degrees above
the freezing-point of water, and then necessarily sinks, the whole depth of the
sea must of course be cooled down to that temperature before freezing can
take place. Ice being a bad conductor of heat, likewise limits the process of
congelation ; for after attaining a thickness of ten or fifteen feet, its growth is
very slow, and probably even ceases altogether ; for when floating fields, or
floes, are found of a greater thickness, this increase is due to the snow that
falls upon their surface, or to the accumulation of hummocks caused by their
collision.
Thus, by the combined influence of these various physical agencies, bounds
have been set to the congelation of the Polar waters. Were it otherwise, the
Arctic lands would have been mere uninhabitable wastes; for the existence of
the seals, the Avalrus, and the whale depends upon their finding some open wa-
ter at every season of the year ; and deprived of this resource, all the Esqui-
maux, whose various tribes fringe- the coasts in the highest latitudes hitherto
discovered, would perish in a single Avinter.
If the Arctic glaciers did not discharge their bergs into the sea, or if no
currents conveyed the ice-floes of the north into lower latitudes, ice would be
TKE POLAR WORLD.
constantly accumulating in the Polar world, and, destroying the balance of na-
ture, would ultimately endanger the existence of man over the whole surface
of the globe.
ARCTIC MARINE ANI3LVLS. 59
CHAPTER IV.
ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS^
Popiilousness of the Arctic Seas. —The Greenland Whale. —The Fin "Whales. — The Narwhal.—
The Beluga, or White Dolphin.— The Black Dolphin.— His wholesale Massacre on the Faeroe Isl-
ands.—The Ore, or Grampus.— The Seals.— The Walrus.— Its acute Smell.— History of a young
Walrus.— Parental Affection.— The Polar Bear.— His Sagacity.— Hibernation of the She-bear.—
Sea-birds.
THE vast multitudes of animated beings which people the Polar Seas form
a remarkable contrast to the nakedness of their bleak and desolate shores.
The colder surface-waters almost perpetually exposed to a chilly air, and fre-
quently covered, even in summer, with floating ice, are indeed unfavorable to
the development of organic life ; but this adverse influence is modified by the
higher temperature which constantly prevails at a greater depth ; for, contrary
to what takes place in the equatorial seas, we find in the Polar Ocean an in-
crease of temperature from the surface downward, in consequence of the
warmer under-currents, flowing from the south northward, and passing be-
neath the cold waters of the superficial Arctic current.
Thus the severity of the Polar winter remains unfelt at a greater depth of
the sea, where myriads of creatures find a secure retreat against the frost, and
whence they emerge during the long summer's day, either to line the shores or
to ascend the broad rivers of the Arctic world. Between the parallels of 74°
and 80° Scoresby observed that the color of the Greenland sea varies from the
purest ultramarine to olive green, and from crystalline transparency to striking
opacity — appearances which are not transitory, but permanent. This green
semi-opaque water, whose position varies with the currents, often forming iso-
lated stripes, and sometimes spreading over two or three degrees of latitude,
mainly owes its singular aspect to small medusae and nudibranchiate molluscs.
It is calculated to form one-fourth part of the surface of the sea between the
above-mentioned parallels, so that many thousands of square miles are absolute-
ly teeming with life.
On the coast of Greenland, Avhere the waters are so exceedingly clear that
the bottom and every object upon it are plainly visible even at a depth of
eighty fathoms, the ground is seen covered Avith gigantic tangles, which, togeth-
er Avith the animal world circulating among their fronds, remind the spectator
of the coral-reefs of the tropical ocean. KuUipores, mussels, alcyonians, sertu-
larians, ascidians, and a variety of other sessile animals, incrust every stone or
fill every hollow or crevice of the rocky ground. A dead seal or fish thrown
iuto the sea is soon converted into a skeleton by the myriads of small crustaceans
which infest these northern waters, and, like the ants in the equatorial forests,
perform the part of scavengers of the deep.
60 THE POLAR WORLD.
TIn^s we find an exuberance of life, in its smaller and smallest forms, peo-
pling the Arctic waters, and affording nourishment to a variety of strange and
bulky creatures — cetaceans, walruses, and seals — which annually attract thou-
sands of adventurous seamen to the icy ocean.
Of these sea-mammalians, the most important to civilized man is undoubted-
ly the Greenland whale {Balcana mysticetus), or smooth-back, thus called from
its having no dorsal fin. Formerly these whales were harpooned in considerable
numbers in the Icelandic waters, or in the fiords of Spitzbergen and Danish
Greenland ; then Davis's otraits became the favorite fishing-groitnds ; and more
recently the inlets and various channels to the east of Baffin's Bay have been
invaded ; while, on the opposite side of America, several hundreds of whalers
penetrate every year through Bering's Straits into the icy sea beyond, where
previously they lived and multiplied, unmolested except by the Esquimaux.
TUB WHALE.
More fortunate than the smooth-back, the rorquals, or fin-whales {Balanop-
tera hoops, muscidus, p>hy salts, and rostratiis), still remain in their ancient seats,
from, which they are not likely to be dislodged, as the agility of their move-
ments makes their capture more difficult and dangerous ; while at tlie same time
the small quantity of their fat and the shortness of their baleen render it far less
remunei'ative. They are of a more slender form of body, and Avith a more
pointed muzzle than the Greenland whale ; and while the latter attains a length
of only sixty feet, the Balmnoptera hoops grows to the vast length of 100 feet
and more. There is also a difference in their food, for the Greenland whale
chiefly feeds upon the minute animals that crowd the olive-colored waters above
described, or on the hosts of little pteropods that are found in many parts of
the Arctic seas, while the rorquals frequently accompany the herring-shoals, and
carry death and destruction into their ranks.
The seas of Novaja Zemlya, Spitzbergen, and Greenland ai-e the domain of
the narwhal, or sea-unicorn, a cetacean quite as strange, but not so fabulous as
the terrestrial animal which figures in the arms of Enerland. The use of the
ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS. 61
enormous spirally wound tusk projecting from its upper jaw, and from which
it derives its popular name, has not yet been clearly ascertained, some holding
it to be an instrument of defense, a^ hile others suppose it to be only an orna-
ment or mark of the superior dignity of the sex to which it has been awarded.
Among the numerous dolphins which people the Arctic and Subarctic seas,
tlie beluga {Z>elphinus leucas), improperly called the white whale, is one of the
most interesting. When young it has a brown color, Avhich gradually changes
into a perfect white. It attains a length of from twelve to twenty feet, has no
dorsal fin, a strong tail three feet broad, and a round head with a broad trun-
cated snout. Beyond 56° of latitude it is frequently seen in large shoals, par-
ticularly near the estuaries of the large Siberian and North American rivers,
which it often ascends to a considerable distance in pursuit of the salmon. A
troop of belugas diving out of the dark waves of the Arctic Sea is said to afford
a magnificent spectacle. Their white color appears dazzHng, from the con-
trast of the sombre background, as they dart about with arrow-like velocity.
The black dolphin ( Glob ice]) halus globicej^s) is likewise very common in
the Arctic seas, both beyond Bering's Straits and between Greenland and Spitz-
bergen, whence it fi-equently makes excursions to the south. It grows to the
length of twenty-four feet, and is about ten feet in circumference. The skin,
like that of the dolphin tribe in general, is smooth, resembling oiled silk ; the
color a bluish-black on the back, and generally whitish on the belly ; the blub-
ber is three or four inches thick.
The full-grown have generally twenty-two or twenty-four teeth in each jaw ;
and when the mouth is shut, the teeth lock between one another, like the teeth
of a trap. The dorsal fin is about fifteen inches high, the tail five feet broad;
the pectoral fins are as many, long and comparatively narrow ; so that, armed
with such excellent paddles, the black dolphin is inferior to none of his relatives
in swiftness. Of an eminently social disposition, these dolphins sometimes con-
gregate in herds of many hundreds, under the guidance of several old experi-
62 THE POLAR WORLD.
euced males, whom the rest follow like a flock of sheep — a property from which
the animal is called in Shetland the " ca'ing whale." No cetacean strands more
frequently than the black dolphin, and occasionally large herds have been driven
on the shores of Iceland, Norway, and the Orkney, Shetland and Faeroe islands,
where their capture is hailed as a godsend. The intelligence that a shoal of
ca'ing whales or grinds has been seen approaching the coast, creates great ex-
citement among the otherwise phlegmatic inhabitants of the Faeroe Islands.
The whole neighborhood, old and young, is instantly in motion, and soon numer-
ous boats shoot off from shore to intercept the retreat of the dolphins. Slowly
and steadily they are driven toward the coast; the phalanx of their enemies
draws closer and closer together ; terrified by stones and blows, they run ashore,
and lie gasping as the flood recedes. Then begins the work of death, amid the
loud shouts of the executioners and the furious splashings of the victims. In
this manner more than 800 grinds were massacred on August 16,1776; and
during the four summer months tliat Langbye sojourned on the island in 1817,
62:3 were driven on shore, and served to pay one-half of the imported corn.
But, on the other hand, many years frequently pass Avithout yielding one single
black whale to the tender mercies of the islanders.
The ferocious ore, or grampus {Del^j/iinus orca), is the tiger of the Arctic
seas. Black above, white beneath, it is distinguished by» its large dorsal fin,
which curves backward toward the tail, and rises to the height of two feet or
more. Measuring no less than twenty -five feet in length and twelve or thirteen
in girth, of a courage equal to its strength, and armed with formidable teeth,
thirty in each jaw, the grampus is the dread of" the seals, whom it overtakes in
spite of their rapid flight ; and the Avhale himself would consider it as his most
formidable enemy, were it not for the persecutions of man. The gi-ampiis gen-
erally ploughs the seas in small troops of four or five, following each other in
close single file, and alternately disappearing and rising so as to resemble the
undulatory motions of one large serpentiform animal.
The family of the seals has also numerous and mighty representatives in the
Arctic waters. In the sea of Bering we meet with the formidable sea lion and
the valuable sea-bear, while the harp-seal, the bearded seal, and the hispid seals
{Phoca groenlancUca, hcn'hata, hispida), spreading from the Parry Islands to
Novaja Zemlya, yield the tribute of their flesh to numerous wild tribes, and
that of their skins to the European hunter.
Few Arctic animals are more valuable to man, or more frequently mentioned
in Polar voyages than the walrus or morse {Trichechus rosmari(s),vsnc\,
though allied to the seals, differs greatly from them by the development of the
canines of the upper jaw, which form two enormous tusks projecting down-
ward to the length of two feet. The morse is one of the largest quadi-upeds ex-
isting, as it attains a length of twenty feet, and a weight of from fifteen hundred
to two thousand pounds. In uncouthness of form it surpasses even the ungain-
ly hippopotamus. It has a small head with a remarkably thick upper lip, cov-
ered with large pellucid whiskers or bristles ; the neck is thick and short ; the
naked gray or red-brown skin hangs loosely on the ponderous and elongated
trunk ; and the short feet terminate in broad fin-like paddles, resembling large
ARCTIC MAKINE ANIJMALS.
63
ill-fasliioued flaps of leather. Its movements on land are extremely slow and
awkward, resembling those of a huge caterpillar, but in the water it has all the
activity of the seals, or even surpasses them in speed.
1 11 ffliniiif irri'iiiiiiiiiiii i
T?|
|(iiKji ij!i||jl
Gregarious, like the seals and many of the dolphins, the Avalruses love to lie
on the Tee or on the sand-banks, closely huddled together. On the spot where
64 THE POLAR WORLD.
a wah'us lands, others are sure to follow ; and when the first comers block the
shore, those which arrive later, instead of landing on a free spot farther on,
prefer giving their friends who are in the way a gentle push with their tusks
so as to induce them to make room.
Timorous and almost helpless on land, where, in spite of its formidable
tusks, it falls an easy prey to the attacks of man, the Avalrus evinces a greater
degree of courage in the water, where it is able to make a better use of the
strength and weapons bestowed upon it by nature. Many instances are known
where walruses, which never attack but when provoked, have turned upon their
assailants, or have even assembled from a distance to assist a wounded com-
rade.
Like the seals, the walrus is easily tamed, and of a most affectionate temper.
This was shown in a remarkable manner by a young walrus brought alive from
Archangel to St. Petersburg in 1829. Its keeper, Madame Dennebecq, having
tended it with the greatest care, the grateful animal expressed its pleasure
whenever she came near it by an affectionate grunt. It not only followed her
with its eyes, but was never happier than when allowed to lay its head in her
lap. The tenderness was reciprocal, and Madame Dennebecq used to .talk of
her walrus with the same warmth of affection as if it had been a pet lapdog.
That parental love should be highly developed in animals thus susceptible
of friendship may easily be imagined. Mr. Lamont, an English gentleman
whom tlie love of sport led a few years since to Spitzbergen, relates the case of
a wounded walrus who held a very young calf under lier riglit arm. When-
ever the harpoon was raised against it, the mother carefully shielded it with
lier own body. The countenance of this poor animal was never to be forgot-
ten : that of the calf expressive of abject terror, and yet of such a boundless
confidence in its mother's power of protecting it, as it swam along under her
wing, and the old cow's face showing such reckless defiance for all that could
be done to ]ierself,and yet such terrible anxiety as to the safety of her calf.
This parental affection is shamefully misused by man, for it is a common
artifice of the walrus-hunters to catch a young animal and make it grunt, in
order to attract a herd.
The walrus is confined to the coasts of the Arctic regions, unless when drift-
ice, or some other accident, carries it away into the open sea. Its chief resorts
are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, North Greenland, the shores of Hudson's and
Baflin's bays ; and on the opposite side of the Polar Ocean, the coasts of Ber-
ing's Sea, and to the north of Bering's Straits, the American and Asiatic shores
from Point Barrow to Cape North. It has nowhere been found on the coasts
of Siberia from the mouth of the Jenisei to the last-mentioned promontory,
and on those of America from Point Barrow to Lancaster Sound ; so that it
inhabits two distinct regions, separated from each other by v^ast extents of
coast. Its food seems to consist principally of marine plants and shell-fish,
though Scoresby relates that he found the remains of fishes, or even of seals, in
its stomach.
As the Polar bear is frequently found above a hundred miles from the near-
est land, upon loose ice steadily drifting into the sea, it seems but fair to assign
ARCTIC MARINE ANIMALS. 65
him a place among the marine animals of the Arctic zone. He hunts by scent,
and is constantly running across and against the wind, which prevails from the
northward, so that the same instinct which directs his search for prey also
serves the important purpose of guiding him in the direction of the land and
more solid ice. His favorite food is the seal, Avhich he surprises crouching
down with his fore paws doubled underneath, and pushing himself noiselessly
forward with his hinder legs until within a few yards, when he springs upon
his victim, whether in the water or upon the ice. He can SAvim at the rate of
three miles an hour, and can dive to a considerable distance. Though he at-
tacks man when hungry, wounded, or provoked, he will not injure him when
food more to his liking is at hand. Sir Francis M'Clintock relates an anecdote
of a native of Upernavik who was out one dark winter's day visiting his seal-
nets. He found a seal entangled, and whilst kneeling down over it upon the
ice to get it clear, he received a slap on the back — from his companion as he
supposed ; but a second and heavier blow made him look smartly round. He
was horror-stricken to see a peculiarly grim old bear instead of his comrade.
Without taking further notice of the man, Bruin tore the seal out of the net,
and began his supper. He was not interrupted, nor did the man wait to see
the meal finished, fearing, no doubt, that his uninvited and unceremonious guest
might keep a corner for him.
Many instances have been observed of the peculiar sagacity of the Polar
bear. Scoresby relates that the captain of a whaler, being anxious to procure
a bear without wounding the skin, made trial of the stratagem of laying the
noose of a rope in the snow, and placing a piece of kreng, or whale's carcass,
within it. A bear, ranging the neighboring ice, was soon enticed to the spot.
Approaching the bait, he seized it in his mouth ; but his foot, at the same
moment, by a jerk of the rope, being entangled in the noose, he pushed it off
with the adjoining paw, and deliberately retired. After having eaten the piece
he carried away with him, he returned. The noose, with another piece of
kreng, being then replaced, he pushed the rope aside, and again walked tri-
umphantly off with the kreng. A third time the noose was laid, and this time
the rope was buried in the snow, and the bait laid in a deep hole dug in the
centre. But Bruin, after snuffing about the place for a few minutes, scraped
the snow away with his paw, threw the rope aside, and escaped unhurt with
his prize.
The she-bear is taught by a wonderful instinct to shelter her young under
the snow. Towards the month of December she retreats to the side of a rQck,
where, by dint of scraping and allowing the snow to fall upon her, she forms a
cell in which to reside during the winter. There is no fear that she should be
stifled for want of air, for the warmth of her breath always keeps a small pas-
sage open, and the snow, instead of forming a thick uniform sheet, is broken
by a little hole, round which is collected a mass of glittering hoar-frost, caused
by the congelation of the breath. Within this strange nursery she produces
her young, and remains with them beneath the snow until the month of March,
when she emerges into the open air with het baby bears. As the time passes
on, the breath of the family, together with the warmth exhaled from their
5
66
THE POLAK WORLD.
%
^0 ^^S^'^.tr^^
HOME OF THE POLAK BEAK
bodies, serves to enlarge the cell, so that with their increasing dimensions the
accommodation is increased to suit them. As the only use of the snow-bmTow
is to shelter the young, the male bears do not hibernate like the females, but
roam freely about during the winter months. Before retiring under the snow,
the bear eats enormously, and, driven by an unfailing instinct, resorts to the
most nutritious diet, so that she becomes prodigiously fat, thus laying in an in-
ternal store of alimentary matter which enables her not only to support her
own life, but to suckle her young during her long seclusion, without taking a
morsel of food. By an admirable provision of nature, the young are of won-
derfully small dimensions when compared with the parent ; and as their growth,
as long as they remain confined in their crystal nursery, is remarkably slow,
they consequently need but little food and space.
The Polar bear is armed with formidable weapons, and a proportionate
power to use them. His claws are two inches in length, and his canine teeth,
exclusive of the* part in the jaw, about an inch and a half. Thus the hoards
of provisions which are frequently deposited by Arctic voyagers to provide for
some future want, have no greater enemy than the Polar bear. " The final
cache," says Kane, " which I relied so much upon, was entirely destroyed. It
had been built with extreme care, of rocks which had been assembled by very
heavy labor, and adjusted with much aid, often, from capstan-bars as levers.
ARCTIC ItlARINE ANIMALS. 67
The entire construction was, so far as our means permitted, most effective and
resisting. Yet these tigers of the ice seemed hardly to have encountered an
obstacle. Not a morsel of pemmican remained, except in the iron cases, which
being round, with conical ends, defied both claws and teeth. They had rolled
and pawed them in every direction, tossing them about like footballs, althougli
over eighty jjounds in weight. An alcohol can, strongly iron-bound, was
dashed into small fragments, and a tin can of liquor smashed and twisted
almost into a ball. The claws of the beast had perforated the metal and torn
it up as with a chisel. They were too dainty for salt meats ; gi'ound coffee
they had an evident relish for ; old canvas was a favorite, for some reason or
other ; even our flag, which had been reai'ed ' to take possession ' of the
waste, was gnawed down to the very staff. They had made a regular ^frolic of
it ; rolling our bread-barrels over the ice ; and, unable to masticate our heavy
India-rubber cloth, they had tied it up in unimaginable hard knots."
Numbers of sea-birds are found breeding along the Arctic shores as far as
man has hitherto penetrated ; some even keep the sea in the high latitudes all
the winter, wherever open water exists. On the most northern rocks the razor-
bill rears its young, and the fulmar and Ross's gull have been seen in lanes of
water beyond 82° lat. As the sun gains in power, enormous troops of puffins,
looms, dovekies, rotges, skuas, burgermasters, Sabine's gulls, kittiwakes, ivory
THE GULL.
gulls, and Arctic terns, return to the north. There they enjoy the long sum-
mer day, and revel in the abundance of the fish-teeming waters, bringing life
and animation into solitudes seldom or perhaps never disturbed by the presence
of man, and mingling their wild screams with the hoarse-resounding surge or
the howling of the storm. In many localities they breed in such abundance,
that it may be said, almost without exaggeration, that they darken the sun
when they fly, and hide the waters wlien they swim.
68
THE POLAR WORLD.
LAVA-FIELDS.
CHAPTER V.
ICELAND.
Volcanic Origin of tlie Island.— The Klofa Jiikul.— Lava-streams.— The Burning Mountains of Krisn-
vik.— The Mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.— The Tungo-hver at Reykholt.— The Great Geysir.— The
Strokkr.— Crystal Pools. — The Almannagja. — The Surts-hellir. — Beautiful Ice-cave. — The Gotha
Foss.- The Detti Foss.— Climate.— Vegetation. — Cattle.— Barbarous ]Iode of Sheep-sheering. —
Reindeer.— Polar Bears.— Birds.— The Eider-duck.— Videy.—Vigr.— The Wild Swan.— The Rar
ven.— The Jerfalcon.— The Giant auk, or Geirfugl.— Fish.— Fishing Season.— The White Shark.—
Mineral Kingdom.— Sulphur.— Peat. — Diift-wood.
ICELAND might as well be called Fireland, for all its 40,000 square miles
have originally been upheaved from the depths of the waters by volcanic
power. First, at some immeasurably distant period of the world's history, the
small nucleus of the future island began to struggle into existence against the
superincumbent weight of the ocean ; then, in the course of ages, cone rose
after cone, crater was formed after crater, eruption followed on eruption, and
lava-stream on lava-stream, until finally the Iceland of the present day was
piled up Avith her gigantic " jokuls," or ice-mountains, and her vast promon-
tories, stretching like huge buttresses far out into the sea.
In winter, when an almost perpetual night covers the wastes of this fire-born
land, and the waves of a stormy ocean thunder against its shores, imagination
can hardly picture a more desolate scene ; but in summer the rugged nature
of Iceland invests itself with many a charm. Then the eye reposes with de-
ICELAND. 69
light on green valleys and crystal lakes, on the purple hills or snow-capped
mountains rising in Alpine grandeur above the distant horizon, and the stran-
ger might almost be tempted to exclaim with her patriotic sons, " Iceland is the
best laud under the sun." That it is one of the most interesting — through its
history, its inhabitants, and, above all, its natural curiosities — no one can doubt.
It has all that can please and fascinate the poet, the artist, the geologist, or the
historian ; the prosaic utilitarian alon£, accustomed to value a country merely
by its productions, might turn with some contempt fi'om a land without corn,
without forests, without mineral riches, and covered for about two-thirds of its
surface with bogs, lava- wastes, and glaciers.
The curse of sterility rests chiefly on the south-eastern and central parts of
the island. Here nothing is to be seen but deserts of volcanic stone or im-
mense ice-fields, the largest of which — the Klofa Jokul — alone extends over
more than 4000 square miles. The interior of this vast region of neve and
glacier is totally unknown. The highest peaks, the most dreadful volcanoes of
the island, rise on the southern and south-western borders of this hitherto inac-
cessible waste ; the Oraefa looking down fi'om a height of 6000 feet upon all
its rivals — the Skaptar, a name of dreadful significance in the annals of Iceland,
and farther on, like the advanced guards of this host of sluml)ering fires, the
Katla, the Myrdal, the Eyjafjalla, and the Hecla, the most renowned, though
not the most terrible, of all the volcanoes of Iceland.
As the ice-fields of this northern island far surpass in magnitude those of
the Alps, so also the lava-streams of ^tna or Vesuvius are insignificant when
compared with the enormous masses of molten stone which at various periods
have issued from the craters of Iceland. From Mount Skjaldebreitb, on both
sides of the lake of Thingvalla as far as Cape Reykjanes, the traveller sees an
uninterrupted lava-field more than sixty miles long, and frequently from twelve
to fifteen broad ; and lava-streams of still more gigantic proportions exist in
many other parts of the island, particularly in the interior. In general, these
lava-streams have cooled down into the most fantastic forms imaginable. " It
is hardly possible," says Mr. Holland, " to give any idea of the general appear-
ance of these once molten masses. Here a great crag has toppled over into
some deep crevasse, there a huge mass has been iipheaved above the fiery
stream which has seethed and boiled around its base. Here is every shape
and figure that scvalpture could design or imagination picture, jumbled to-
gether in grotesque confusion, whilst everywhere myriads of horrid spikes and
sharp shapeless irregularities bristle amidst them."
By the eruptions of the Icelandic volcanoes many a fair meadow-land has
been converted into a stony wilderness ; but if the subterranean fires have fre-
quently brought ruin and desolation over the island, they have also endowed it
with many natural wonders.
In the " burning mountains " of Krisuvik, on the south-western coast, a
whole hill-slope, with a deep narrow gorge at its foot, is covered with innumer-
able boiling springs and fumaroles, whose dense exhalations, spreading an in-
tolerable stench, issue out of the earth with a hissing noise, and completely hide
the view.
70 THE POLAR WORLD.
lii'ilUY IN LAVA.
The Namar, or boiling mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid, situated among a range
of mountains near the My vatn (Gnat-Lake), in one of the most solitary spots in
the north of the island, on the border of enormous lava-fields and of a vast un-
known wilderness, exhibit volcanic power on a still more gigantic scale. There
are no less than twelve of these seething pits, all filled Avith a disgusting thick
slimy gray or black liquid, boiling or simmering with greater or less vehemence,
and emitting dense volumns of steam strongly impregnated with sulphurous
gases. Some sputter furiously, scattering their contents on every side, while in
others the muddy soup appears too thick to boil, and after remaining quiescent
for about half a minute, rises up a few inches in the centre of the basin, emits
a puff of steam, and then subsides into its former state. The diameter of the
largest of all the pits can not be less than fifteen feet ; and it is a sort of mud
Geysir, for at intervals a column of its black liquid contents, accompanied with
a violent rush of steam, is thrown up to the height of six or eight feet. Pro-
fessor Sartorius von Waltershausen, one of the few travellers who have visited
this remarkable spot, says that the witches in Macbeth could not possibly have
desired a more fitting place for the preparation of their infernal gruel than the
mud-caldrons of Reykjahlid.
Among the hot or boiling springs of Iceland, which in hundreds of places
gush forth at the foot of the mountains, some are of a gentle and even flow, and
can be used for bathing, washing, or boiling, while others of an intermittent na-
ture are mere objects of curiosity or wonder. One of the most remarkable of
the latter is the Tungo-hver, at Reykholt, in the " valley of smoke," thus named
from the columns of vapor emitted by the thermal springs which are here scat-
tered about with a lavish hand. It consists of two fountains within a yard of
each other — the larger one vomiting a column of boiling water ten feet high for
the space of about four minutes, when it entirely subsides, and then the smaller
one operates for about three minutes, ejecting a column of about five feet.
The alternation is perfectly regular in time and force, and there are authentic ac-
counts of its unfailing exactitude for the last hundred years.
But of all the springs and fountains of Iceland there is none to equal, either
in grandeur or renown, the Great Geysir, which is not merely one of the curi-
ICELAND. 71
osities of the country, but one of the wonders of the earth, as there is nothiiig
to compare to it in any other part of the world.
At the foot of the Laugafjall hill, in a green plain, through which several
rivers meander like threads of silver, and where chains of dark-colored mount-
ains, overtopped here and there by distant snow-peaks, form a grand but mel-
ancholy panorama, dense volumes of steam indicate from afar the site of a
whole system of thermal springs congregated on a small piece of ground which
does not exceed twelve acres. In any other spot, the smallest of these boiling
fountains would arrest the traveller's attention, but here his whole mind is ab-
sorbed by the Great Geysir. In the course of countless ages this monarch of
springs has formed, out of the silica it deposits, a mound which rises to about
thirty feet above the general surface of the plain, and slopes on all sides to the
distance of a hundred feet or thereabouts from the border of a large circular
basin situated in its centre, and measuring about fifty-six feet in the greatest
diameter and fifty-two feet in the narrowest. In the middle of this basin,
forming as it were a gigantic funnel, there is a pipe or tube, which at its open-
ing in the basin is eighteen or sixteen feet in diameter, but narrows consider-
ably at a little distance from the mouth, and then appears to be not more than
ten or twelve feet in diameter. It has been probed to a depth of seventy feet,
but it is more than probable that hidden channels ramify farther into the bow-
els of the earth. The sides of the tube are smoothly polished, and so hard that
it is not possible to strike off a piece of it with a hammer.
Generally the whole basin is found filled up to the brim with sea-green wa-
ter as pure as crystal, and of a temperature of from 180° to 190°. Astonished
at the placid tranquillity of the pool, the traveller can hardly believe that he is
really standing on the brink of the far-famed Geysir ; but suddenly a subterra-
nean thunder is heard, the ground trembles under his feet, the water in the ba-
sin begins to simmer, and large bubbles of steam rise from the tube and burst
on reaching the surface, throwing up small jets of spray to the height of sev-
eral feet. Every instant he expects to witness the grand spectacle which has
chiefly induced him to visit this northern land, but soon the basin becomes tran-
quil as before, and the dense vapors produced by the ebullition are wafted away
by the breeze. These smaller eruptions are regularly repeated every eighty or
ninety minutes, but frequently the traveller is obliged to wait a whole day, or
even longer, before he sees the whole power of the Geysir. A detonation loud-
er than usual precedes one of these grand eruptions ; the water in the basin is
violently agitated ; the tube boils vehemently ; and suddenly a magnificent col-
umn of water, clothed in- vapor of a dazzling whiteness, shoots up into the
air with immense impetuosity and noise to the height of seventy or eighty
feet, and, radiating at its apex, showers water and steam in every direction. A
second eruption and a third rapidly follow, and after a few minutes the fairy
spectacle has passed away like a fantastic vision. The basin is now completely
dried up, and on looking down into the shaft, one is astonished to see the water
about six feet from the rim, and as tranquil as in an ordinary well. After
about thirty or forty minutes it again begins to rise, and after a few hours
reaches the brim of the basin, whence it flows down the slope of the mound
73-
THE POLAR WORLD.
into the Hvita, or White River. Soon the subterraneous thunder, the shaking of
the ground, the simmering above the tube, and the other phenomena which at-
tend each minor eruption, begin again, to be followed by a new period of rest,
and thus this wonderful play of nature goes on day after day, year after year,
and century after century. The mound of the Geysir bears witness to its im-
mense antiquity, as its water contains but a minute portion of silica.
After the Geysir, the most remarkable fountain of these Phlegnean fields is
the great Strokkr, 'situated about four hundred feet from the former. Its tube,
THE STBOKKB.
the margin of which is almost even with the general surface, the small mound
and basin being hardly discernible, is funnel-shaped, or resembling the flower of
a convolvulus, having a depth of forty-eight feet, and a diameter of six feet at
the mouth, but contracting, at twenty-two feet from the bottom, to only eleven
inches. The water stands from nine to twelve feet under the brim, and is gen-
erally in violent ebullition. A short time before the beginning of the erup-
tions, which are more frequent than those of the Great Geysir, an enormous
mass of steam rushes from the tube, and is followed by a rapid succession of jets,
sometimes rising to the height of 120 or 150 feet, and dissolving into silvery
mist. A peculiarity of the Strokkr is that it can at any time be provoked to an
eruption by throwing into the orifice large masses of peat or turf; thus chok-
ing the shaft, and preventing the free escape of the steam. After the lapse of
about ten minutes, the boiling fluid, as if indignant at this attempt upon its
liberty, heaves up a column of mud and water, with fragments of peat, as black
as ink.
ICELAND.
73
About 150 paces from the Great Geysir are several pools of the most beau-
tifully clear water, tinting with every shade of the purest green and blue the
fantastical forms of the silicious travertin which clothes their sides. The slight-
est motion communicated to the surface quivers down to the bottom of these
crystal grottoes, and imparts what might be called a sympathetic tremor of the
water to every delicate incrustation and plant-like efflorescence. " Aladdin's
Cave could not be more beautiful," says Preyer ; and Mr. Holland remarks that
neither description nor drawing is capable of giving a sufficient idea of the sin-
gularity and loveliness of this spot. In many places it is dangerous to approach
within several feet of the margin, as the earth overhangs the water, and is hol-
low underneath, supported only by incrustations scarcely a foot thick. A
plunge into waters of about 200° would be paying rather too dearly for the
contemplation of their fairy-like beauty.
ENTRANCE TO THE ALMANNAGJA.
The gigantic chasm of the Almannagja is another of the volcanic wonders
of Iceland. After a long and tedious ride over the vast lava-plain which extends
between the Skalafell and the lake of Thingvalla, the traveller suddenly finds
himself arrested in his path by an apparently insurmountable obstacle, for the
74 ■ THE POLAR WORLD.
enormous Almaunagja, or AUman's Rift, suddenly gapes beneath his feet — a
colossal rent extending above a mile in length, and inclosed on both sides by
abrupt walls of black lava, frequently upward of a hundred feet high, and sep-
arated from about fifty to seventy feet from each other.
THE ALMANNAGJA.
A corresponding chasm, but of inferior dimensions, the Hrafnagja, or Ra-
ven's Rift, opens its black rampart to the east, about eight miles farther on ;
and both form the boundaries of the verdant plain of Thingvalla, which by a
grand convulsion of nature has itself been shattered into innumerable small
parallel crevices and fissures fifty or sixty feet deep.
Of the Hrafnagja Mr. Ross Browne says : " A toilsome ride of eight miles
brought us to the edge of the Pass, which in point of rugged grandeur far
surpasses the Almannagja, though it lacks the extent and symmetry which give
the latter such a remarkable effect. Here was a tremendous gap in the earth,
over a hundred feet deep, hacked and shivered into a thousand fantastic shapes ;
the sides a succession of the wildest accidents ; the bottom a chaos of broken
lava, all tossed about in the most terrific confusion. It is not, however, the ex-
traordinary desolation of the scene that constitutes its principal interest. The
resistless power which had rent the great lava-bed asunder, as if touched with
pity at the ruin, had also flung from the tottering cliffs a causeway across the
gap, which now forms the only means of passing over the great Hrafnagja.
No human hands could have created such a colossal Avork as this ; the imagi-
nation is lost in its massive grandeur ; and when we reflect that miles of an
almost impassable country would otherwise have to be traversed in order to
ICELAND.
75
',*-W,,-c,, --^^
THE HRAFNAGJA.
reach the opposite side of the gap, the conckision is irresistible that in the bat-
tle of the elements Nature still had a kindly remembrance of man.
THE TINTKON ROCK.
76
THE POLAR WORLD.
"Five or six miles beyond the Hrafnagja, near the summit of a dividing
ridge, Ave came upon a very singular volcanic formation, called the Tiutron.
It stands, a little to the right of the trail, on a rise of scoria and burnt earth,
from which it juts up in rugged relief to the height of twenty or thirty feet.
This is, strictly speaking, a huge clinker, not unlike what comes out of a grate
— hard, glassy in spots, and scraggy all over. The top part is shaped like a
shell ; in the centre is a hole about three feet in diameter, which opens into a
vast subterranean cavity of unknown depth. Whether the Tintron is an ex-
tinct crater, through which fires shot out of the earth in by-gone times, or an
isolated mass of lava, whirled through the air out of some distant volcano, is
a question that geologists must determine. The probability is that it is one
of those natural curiosities so common in Iceland which defy research. The
whole country is full of anomalies — bogs where one would expect to find dry
land, and parched deserts Avhere it would not seem strange to see bogs ; fire
where water ought to be, and water in the place of fire."
" Ages ago," says Lord Dufferin, " some vast commotion shook the foun-
dations of the island ; and bubbling up from sources far away amid the inland
hills, a fierj deluge must have rushed down between their ridges, until, esca-
ping from the narrower gorges, it found space to spread itself into one broad
sheet of molten stone over an entire district of country, reducing its varied
surface to one vast blackened level. One of two things then occurred : either,
"5'™*'"ll!|i|,
the itiified mass contractnig as it
cooled, the centre area of fifty square
miles (the present plain of Thingvalla)
bui St asunder at either side from the
adjoining plateau, and sinking down to
its present level, left two parallel gjas,
or chasms, which form its lateral bound-
aries, to mark the limits of the disruption; or else, while the pith or marrow of
the lava was still in a fluid state, its upper surface became solid, and formed a
FALL OF THE OXERAA.
ICELAND. 77
roof, beneath which the molten stream flowed on to lower levels, leaving a vast
cavern into which the upper crust subsequently plumped down." In the lapse
of years, the bottom of the Almannagja has become gradually filled up to an
even surface, covered with the most beautiful turf, except where the river
Oxeraa, bounding in a magnificent cataract from the higher plateau over the
precipice, flows for a certain distance between its walls. At the foot of the
fall the waters linger for a moment in a dark, deep, brimming pool, hemmed
in by a circle of ruined rocks, in which anciently all women convicted of
capital crimes were immediately drowned. Many a poor crone, accused of
witchcraft, has thus ended iiev days in the Almannagja. As may easily be im-
agined, it is rather a nerve-trying task to descend into the chasm over a rugged
lava-slope, where the least false step may prove fatal ; but the Icelandic horses
are so sure-footed that they can safely be trusted. From the bottom it is
easy to distinguish on the one face marks and formations exactly correspond-
ing, though at a different level, with those on the face opposite, and evidently
showing that they once had dovetailed into each other, before the igneous
mass was rent asunder.
Two leagues from Kalmanstunga, in an immense lava-field, which probably
originated in the Bald Jokul, are situated the renowned Surts-hellir, or caves
of Surtur, the prince of darkness and fire of the ancient Scandinavian mytholo-
gy. The principal entrance to the caves is an extensive chasm formed by the
falling in of a part of the lava-roof ; so that, on descending into it, the visitor
finds himself right in the mouth of the main cavern, which runs in an almost
straight line, and is nearly a mile in length. Its average height is about forty,
and its breadth fifty feet. The lava-crust which forms its roof is about twelve
feet thick, and has the appearance of being stratified and columnar, like basaltic
pillars, in its formation. Many of the blocks of lava thus formed have become
detached and fallen into the cavern, where they lie piled up in great heaps, and
heavily tax the patience of the traveller, who has to scramble over the rugged
stones, and can hardly avoid slipping and stumbling into the holes between
them, varied by pools of water and masses of snow. But after having toiled
and plodded to the extremity of this dismal cavern, his perseverance is amply
rewarded by the sight of an ice-grotto, whose fairy beauty appears still more
charming, in contrast with its gloomy vestibule. From the crystal floor rises
group after group of transparent pillars tapering to a point, while from the
roof brilliant icy pendants hang down to meet them. Columns and arches of
ice are ranged along the crystalline walls, and the light of the candles is reflect-
ed back a hundred-fold from every side, till the whole cavern shines with aston-
ishing lustre. Mr. Holland, the latest visitor of the Surts-hellir, declares he
never saw a more brilhant spectacle ; and the German naturalist, Preyer, pro-
nounces it one of the most magnificent sights in nature, reminding him of the
fairy grottoes of the Arabian Nights' Tales.
From the mountains and the vast plateau which occupies the centre of the
island, numerous rivers descend on all sides, which, fed in summer by the melt-
ing glaciers, pour enormous quantities of turbid water into the sea, or convert
large alluvial flats into morasses. Though of a considerable breadth, their
78 THE POLAR WORLD.
course is frequently very short, particularly along the southern coast, where
the jokuls from which they derive their birth are only separated from the
sea by a narrow foreland. In their impetuous flow, they not seldom bear huge
blocks of stone along with them, and cut off all communication between the
inhabitants of their opposite banks.
The chief rivers of Iceland are, in the south, the Thiorsa and the Ilvita,
which are not inferior in width to the Rhine in the middle part of its course ;
in the north, the Skjalfandafljot and the Jokulsa and the Jokulsa i Axarfirdi,
large and rapid streams above a hundred miles long ; and in the east the La-
garfliot. As may be expected in a mountainous, country, containing many
glacier-fed I'ivers, Iceland has numerous cascades, many of them rivalling or
surpassing in beauty the far-famed falls of Switzerland,
One of the most celebrated of these gems of nature is the Goda-foss, in the
northern part of the island, formed by the deep and rapid Skjalfandafljot, as it
rushes with a deafening roar over rocks fifty feet high into the caldron below ;
but it is far surpassed in magnificence by the Dettifoss, a fall of the Jokulsa i
Axarfirdi.
" In some of old earth's convulsions," says its discoverer, Mr. Gould, — for
from its remote situation, deep in the northern wilds of Iceland, it had escaped
the curious eye of previous travellers — " the crust of rock has been rent, and a
frightful fissure formed in the basalt, about 200 feet deep, with the sides co-
lumnar and perpendicular. The gash terminates abruptly at an acute angle,
and at this spot the great river rolls in. The wreaths of water sweeping
down ; the frenzy of the confined streams where they meet, shooting into each
other from either side at the apex of an angle ; the wild rebound when they
strike a head of rock, lurching out half way down ; the fitful gleam of battling
torrents, obtained through a veil of eddying vapor ; the Geyslr-spouts which
blow up about seventy feet from holes whence basaltic columns have been shot
by the force of the descending water ; the blasts of spray which rush upward
and burst into fierce showers on the brink, feeding rills which plunge over the
edge as soon as they are born ; the white writhing vortex below, with now and
then an ice-green wave tearing through the ioam to lash against the walls ; the
thunder and bellowing of the water, which make the rock shudder under foot,
ar-e all stamped on ray mind with a vividness w^hich it will take years to efface.
The Almannagja is nothing to this chasm, and Schaffhausen is dwarfed by
Dettifoss."
The ocean-currents whicli wash the coasts of Iceland from opposite direc-
tions have a considerable influence on its climate. The south and west coasts,
fronting the Atlantic, and exposed to the Gulf Stream, remain ice-free even in
winter, and enjoy a comparatively mild temperature, w^hile the cold Polar cur-
rent, flowing in a south-western direction from Spitzbergen to Jan Mayen and
Iceland, conveys almost every year to the eastern and northern shores of the
island large masses of drift-ice, which sometimes do not disappear before July
or even August. According to Dr. Thorstensen, the mean annual temperature
of the air at Reykjavik is +40°, and that of the sea -f 42°, while according to
Herr von Scheele the mean annual temperature at Akurcyre, on the north coast.
ICELAND. 79
is only +33°, though even this shows a comparatively mild climate in so high
a latitude. But if Iceland, thanks to its insular position and to the influence
of the Gulf Stream, remains free from the excessive winter cold of the Arctic
continents, its summer, on the other hand, is inferior in warmth to that which
reigns in the interior of Siberia, or of the Hudson's Bay territories.
The mean summer temperature at Reykjavik is not above +54°; during
many years the thermometer never rises a single time above +80°; sometimes
even its maximum is not higher than +59° ; and, on the northern coast, snow
not seldom falls even in the middle of summer. Under such circumstances, the
cultivation of the cereals is of course impossible ; and when the drift-ice re-
mains longer than usual on the northern coasts, it prevents even the growth of
the grass, and want and famine are the consequence.
The Icelandic summer is characterized by constant changes in the weather,
rain continually alternating with sunshine, as with us in April. The air is but
seldom tranquil, and storms of terrific violence are of frequent occurrence.
Towards the end of September winter begins, preceded by mists, which finally
descend in thick masses of snow. TravelUng over the mountain-tracks is at
this time particularly dangerous, although cairns or piles of stone serve to
point out the way, and here and there, as over the passes of the Alps, small huts
have been erected to serve as a refuge for the traveller.
In former times Iceland could boast of forests, so that houses and even ships
used to be built of indigenous timber; at present it is almost entirely destitute
of trees, for the dwarf shrubberies here and there met with, where the birch
hardly attains the height of twenty feet, are not to be dignified with the name
of woods. A service-tree {Sorbus cmciiparia) fourteen feet high, and measur-
ing three inches in diameter at the foot, is the boast of the governor's garden
at Reykjavik ; it is, however, surpassed by another at Akureyre, which spreads
a full crown twenty feet from the ground, but never sees its clusters of berries
ripen into scarlet.
The damp and cool Icelandic summer, though it prevents the successful cul-
tivation of corn, is favorable to the growth of grasses, so that in some of the
better farms the pasture-grounds are hardly inferior to the finest meadows in
England. About one-third of the surface of the country is covered with vege-
tation of some sort or other fit for the nourishment of cattle ; but, as yet, art
has done little for its improvement— ploughing, sowing, drainage, an.d levelling
being things undreamt of. With the exception of the grasses, which are of
paramount importance, and the trees, which, in spite of their stunted propor-
tions, are of great value, as they supply the islanders with the charcoal needed
for shoeing their horses, few of the indigenous plants of Iceland are of any use
to man. The Angelica archangelica is eaten raw with butter; the matted
roots or stems of the Menyanthes trifoliata serve to protect the backs of the
horses against the rubbing of the saddle ; and the Icelandic moss, which is fre-
quently boiled in milk, is likewise an article of exportation. The want of bet-
ter grain frequently compels the poor islanders to bake a kind of bread from
the seeds of the sand-reed {Elymus arenarius), which on our dunes are merely
picked by the birds of passage ; and the oarweed or tangle {Laminar ia sac-
80 THE POLAR WORLD.
charina) is i:.rized as a vegetable in a land where potatoes and turnips are but
rarely cultivated.
When the first settlers came to Iceland, they found but two indigenous
land-quadrupeds : a species of field-vole {Arvicola oeconomus) and the Arctic
fox ; but the seas and shores were no doubt tenanted by a larger number of
whales, dolphins, and seals than at the present day.
The ox, the sheep, and the horse which accompanied the Norse colonists to
their new home, form the staple wealth of their descendants ; for the number
of those who live by breeding cattle is as three to one, compared with those
who chiefly depend on the sea for their subsistence. Milk and whey ^re almost
the only beverages of the Icelanders. Without butter they will eat no fish ;
and curdled milk, which they eat fresh in summer and preserve in a sour state
during the winter, is their favorite repast. Thus they set the highest value en
their cattle, and tend them with the greatest care. In the preservation of their
sheep, they are much hampered by the badness of the climate, by the scantiness
of winter food, and by the attacks of the eagles, the ravens, and the foxes, more
particularly at the lambing season, when vast numbers of the young animals
are carried off by all of them. The wool is not sheared off, but torn from the
animal's back, and woven by the peasantry, during the long winter evenings, into
a kind of coarse cloth, or knit into gloves and stockings, which form one of the
chief articles of export.
" While at breakfast," says Mr. Shepherd, " we witnessed the Icelandic meth-
od of sheep-shearing. Three or four powerful young women seized, and easily
threw on their backs the strugghng victims. The legs were then tied, and the
wool pulled off by main force. It seemed, from the contortions of some of the
wretched animals, to be a cruel method ; but we were told that there is a period
in the year when the young wool, beginning to grow, pushes the old out before
it, so that the old coat is easily pulled out." The number of heads of cattle in
the island is about 40,000, that of the sheep 500,000.
The horses, which number from 50,000 to 60,000, though small, are very ro-
bust and hardy. There being no wheel carriages on the island, they are mere-
ly used for riding and as beasts of burden. Their services are indispensable,
as without them the Icelanders would not have the means of travelling and car-
rying their produce to the fishing villages or ports at which the annual suppHes
arrive from Copenhagen. In winter the poor animals must find their own food,
and are consequently mere skeletons in spring ; they, however, soon recover in
summer, though even then they have nothing whatever but the grass and small
plants which they can pick up on the hills.
The dogs are very similar to those of Lapland and Greenland. Like them,
they have long hair, forming a kind of collar round the neck, a pointed nose,
pointed ears, and an elevated curled tail, with a temper which may be charac-
terized as restless and irritable. Their general color is white.
In the year 1Y70 thirteen reindeer were brought from Norway. Ten of
them died during the passage, but the three that survived have multiplied so
fast that large herds now roam over the uninhabited wastes. During the win-
ter, when hunger drives them into the. lower districts, they are frequently shot;
ICELAND.
81
ICELANDIC HORSES.
but no attempts have been made to tame them : for, though iudisiiensable to the
Laplander, they are quite superfluous in Iceland, which is too rugged and too
much intersected by streams to admit of sledging. They are, in fact, generally
considered as a nuisance, as they eat away the Icelandic moss, which the island-
ers would willingly keep for their own use.
The Polar bear is but a casual visitor in Iceland. About a dozen come
drifting every year with the ice from Jan Mayen, or Spitzbergen, to the north-
ern shores. Ravenous with hunger, they immediately attack the first herds
they meet with ; but their ravages do not last long, for the neighborhood, aris-
ing in arms, soon puts an end to their existence.
In Iceland the ornithologist finds a rich field for his favorite study, as there
are no less than eighty-two different species of indigenous birds, besides twenty-
one that are only casual visitors, and six that have been introduced by man.
The swampy grounds in the interior of the country are peopled with legions
of golden and king plovers, of snipes and red-shanks ; the lakes abound with
swans, ducks, and g^se of various kinds ; the snow-bunting enlivens the soli-
tude of the rocky wilderness with his lively note, and, wherever grass grows,
the common pipit {Atithzis pratensis) builds its neat little nest, well lined A^•ith
horsehair. Like the lark, he rises singing from the gi'ound, and frequently
surprises the traveller with his melodious warbling, which sounds doubly sweet
in the lifeless waste.
The eider-duck holds the fii'st rank among the useful birds of Iceland. Its
chief breeding-places are small flat islands on various parts of the coast, where
it is safe from the attacks of the Arctic fox, such as Akurey, Flatey, and Videy,
83
THE POLAR WORLD.
whicli, from its vicinity to Reykjavik, is frequently visited by travellers. All
these breeding-places are private property, and several have been for centuries
in the possession of the same families, which, thanks to the birds, are among the
wealthiest of the land. It may easily be imagined that the eider-ducks are
guarded with the most sedulous care. Whoever kills one is obliged to pay a
ICELAND. 83
f
fine of thirty dollars ; and the secreting of
an egg, or the pocketing of a few downs, is
punished with all the rigor of the law. The
chief occupation of Mr. Stephenson, the aged
proprietor of Videy, who dwells alone on the
islet, is to examine through his telescope all
the boats that approach, so as- to be sure that
there are no guns on board. During the
breeding season no one is allowed to laud
without his special permission, and all noise,
, shouting, or loud speaking is sti'ictly prohib-
ited. But, in spite of these precautions, we
are informed by recent travellers that latterly the greater part of the ducks of
Videy have been tempted to leave their old quarters for the neighboring Engey,
whose proprietor hit upon the plan of laying hay upon the strand, so as to afford
them greater facilities for nest-building. The eider-down is easily collected, as the
birds are quite tame. The female having laid five or six pale greenish-olive eggs,
iu a nest thickly lined with her beautiful doAvn, the collectors, after carefully re-
moving the bird, rob the nest of its contents, after which they replace her. She
then begins to lay afresh, though this time only three or four eggs, and again
has recourse to the down on her body. But her greedy persecutors once more
rifle her nest, and oblige her to line it for the third time. ' Now, however, her
own stock of down is exhausted, and with a plaintive voice she calls her mate to
her assistance, who willingly plucks the soft feathers from his breast to supply
the deficiency. If the cruel robbery be again repeated, which in former times
was frequently the case, the poor eider-duck abandons the spot, never to return,
and seeks for a new home where she may indulge her maternal instinct undis-
turbed.
Mr. Shepherd thus describes his visit to Vigr, in the Isafjardardjup, one of
the head-quarters of the eider-duck in the north of Iceland : " As the island
was approached, we could see flocks upon flocks of the sacred birds, and could
hear their cooings at a great distance. We landed on a rocky wave-worn shore,
against which the waters scarcely rippled, and set off to investigate the island.
The shore was the most wonderful ornithological sight conceivable. The ducks
and their nests were everywhere in a manner that was quite alarming. Great
brown ducks sat upon their nests in masses, and at every step started up from
under our feet. It was with difiiculty that we avoided treading on some of
the nests. The island being but three-quarters of a mile in width, the oppo-
site shore was soon reached. On the coast was a wall built of large stones,
just above the high-water level, about three feet in height, and of considerable
thickness. At the bottom, on both sides of it, alternate stones had been left
out, so as to form a series of square compartments for the ducks to make their
nests in. Almost every compartment was occupied ; and, as we walked along
the shore, a long line of ducks flew. out one after another. The surface of the
water also was perfectly white with drakes, who welcomed their brown wives
^ith loud and clamorous cooing. When we arrived at the farmhouse we were
84 THE POLAR WORLD.
cordially welcomed by its mistress. The house itself was a great marvel.
The earthern wall that sixrrounded it and the window embi-asures were occu-
pied by ducks. On the ground, the house was fringed with ducks. On the
turf slopes of the roof we could see ducks ; and a duck sat in the scraper.
•1 " A grassy bank close by had been cut into square patches like a chess-
board (a square of turf of about eighteen inches being removed, and a hollow
made), and all w^ere filled with ducks. A windmill was infested, and so were
all the outhouses, mounds, rocks, and crevices. The ducks were everywhere.
Many of thera were so tame that we could stroke them on their nests ; and the
good lady told us that there was scarcely a duck on the island which would
not allow her to take its eggs without flight or fear. When she first became
possessor of the island, the produce of down from the ducks was not more
than fifteen pounds' weight in the yeai", but, under her careful nurture of twenty
• years, it had risen to nearly one hundred pounds annually. It requires about
one pound and a half to make a coverlet for a single bed, and the down is
worth from twelve to fifteen shillings per pound. Most of the eggs are taken
and pickled for winter consumption, one or two only being left to hatch."
'^ Though not so impoi'tant as the eider, the other members of the duck
family which during the summer season enliven the lakes and swamps of Ice-
land are very serviceable. On the Myvatn, or Gnat Lake, one of their chief
places of resort, the eggs of the long-tailed duck, the wild duck, the scoter, the
common goosander, the red-breasted merganser, the scaup-duck, etc., and other
anserines are carefully gathered and preserved in enormous quantities for the
winter, closely packed in a fine gray volcanic sand.
The wild swan is frequently shot or caught for his feathers, which bring in
many a dollar to the fortunate huntsman. This noble bird frequents both the
salt and brackish waters along the coast and the inland lakes and rivers, where
it is seen either in single pairs or congregated in large flocks. To build its
nest, which is said to resemble closely that of the flamingo, being a large
mound, composed of mud, rushes, grass, and stones, with a cavity at top Uned
with soft down, it retires to some solitary, uninhabited spot. Much has been
said in ancient times of the singing of the swan, and the beauty of its dying
notes ; but, in truth, the voice of the swan is very loud, shrill, and harsh, though
when high in the air, and modulated by the winds, the note or whoop of an
assemblage of them is not unpleasant to the ear. It has a peculiar charm in
the unfrequented wastes of Iceland, where it agreeably interrupts the profound
silence that reigns around.
The raven, one of the commonest land-birds in Iceland, is an object of avei'-
sion to the islanders, as it not only seizes on their young lambs and eider-ducks,
but also commits great depredations among the fishes laid out to dry upon the
shore. Poles to which dead ravens are attached, to serve as a warning to the
living, are frequently seen in the meadows ; and the Icelander is never so hap-
py as when he has succeeded in shooting a raven. This, however, is no easy
task, as no bird is more cautious, and its eyes are as sharp as those of the eagle.
Of all Icelandic birds, the raven breeds the earliest, laying about the middle of
March its five or six pale-green eggs, spotted with brown, in the inaccessible
ICELAND.
85
crevices of rocks. Towards tlie end of June, Preyer saw many young ravens
grown to a good size, and but little inferior to the old ones in cunning.
In the gloomy Scandinavian mythology the raven occupies a rank equal to
that of the eagle in the more cheerful fables of ancient Greece. It was dedi-
cated to Odin, who, as the traditional history of Iceland informs ' us, had two
ravens, which were let loose every morning to gather tidings of what was go-
ing on in the world, and which on returning in the evening perched upon Odin's
shoulders to Avhisper the news in his ear j the name of one was Hugin, or
spirit ; of the other, Mumin, or memory. Even now many superstitious no-
tions remain attached to the raven ; for the Icelanders believe this bird to be
not only acquainted with what is going on at a distance, but also with what is
to happen in future, and are convinced that it foretells when any of the family
is about to die, by perching on the roof of the house, or wheeling round in the
air with a continual cry, varying its voice in a singular and melodious manner.
A The white-tailed sea-eagle is not uncommon in Iceland, where he stands in
evil repiUe as a kidnapper of lambs and eider-ducks. He is sometimes found
dead in the nets of the fishermen ; for, pouncing upon a haddock or salmon, he
gets entangled in the meshes, and is unable to extricate himself. The skins of
the bird, which seems to attain a larger size than in Great Britain, most likely
from being less disturbed by man, are sold at Reykjavik and Akureyre for from
three to six rix-doUars. /
The jyrfalcon {Falco gyrfalco), generally
considered, as the boldest and most beauti-
ful of the falcon tribe, has its head-quarters
in Iceland. As long as the noble sport of
falconry was in fashion, for which it was
highly esteemed, the trade in falcons was
worth from 2000 to 3000 rix-dollars annually
to the islanders, and even now high prices
are paid for it by English amateurs.
The rarest bird of Iceland, if not entirely
extinct, is the Giant-auk, or Geirfugl. The
last pair was caught about seventeen years
ago near the Geirfuglaskers, a group of sol-
itary rocks to the south of the Westman
Isles, its only known habitat besides some
similar cliffs on the north-eastern coast.
Since that time it is said to have been seen
by some fishermen ; but this testimony is extremely doubtful, and the question
of its existence can only be solved by a visit to the Geirfuglaskers themselves
— an undertaking which, if practicable at all, is attended with extreme difficulty
and danger, as these rocks are completely isolated in the sea, which even in
calm weather breaks with such violence against their abrupt declivities that
for years it must be absolutely impossible to approach them.
In 1858 two English naturalists determined at least to make the attemjit,
and settled for a season in a small hamlet on the neighboring coast, eager to
THE jyRFALCON.
86
THE POLAR WORLD.
THE GIANT-AUK.
seize the first opportunity* for storming the Geirfugl's stronghold. They wait-
ed for several mouths, but in vain, the stormy summer being more than usually
unfavorable for their undertaking ; and they were equally unsuccessful in the
north, whither they had sent an Icelandic student specially instructed for the
purpose. The giant-auk is three feet high, and has a black bill four inches and
a quarter long, both mandibles being crossed obliquely with several ridges and
furrows. Its wings are mere stumps, like those of the Antarctic penguins.
Thirty pounds have been paid for its egg, which is lai-ger than that of any
other Eui-opean bird; and there is no knowing the price the Zoological Society
would pay for a live bird, if this truly " rara avis " could still be found.
The waters of Iceland abound with excellent fish, which not only supply the
islanders with a great part of their food and furnish them with one of their
chief articles of exportation, but also attract a number of foreign seamen.
Thus about 300 French, Dutch, and Belgian fishing-sloops, manned with crews
amounting in all to 7000 men, annually make their appearance on the southern
and western coasts of Iceland, particularly those of the Guldbringe Syssel, or
gold-bringing country : thus named, not f i-om any evidence of the precious
metal, but from the golden cod-harvests reaped on its shores. Between thirty
and forty English fishing-smacks yearly visit the northern coast. When they
have obtained a good cargo they run to Shetland to discharge it, and return
again for more.
The Icelandic fishing-season, which begins in February and ends in June,
occupies one-half of the male inhabitants of the island, who come flocking to
the west, even from the remotest districts of the north and east, to partake of
the rich harvest of the seas. Many thus travel for more than 200 miles in the
midst of winter, while the storm howls over the naked waste, and the pale sun
scarcely dispels for a few hours the darkness of the night. In every hut where
they tarry on the road they are welcome, and have but rarely to pay for their
ICELAND. . 87
entertainment, for hospitality is still reckoned a duty in Iceland, On reaching
the fishing-station, an agreement is soon made with the proprietor of a boat.
They usually engage to assist in fishing from February 12 to May 12, and re-
ceive in return a share of the fish which they help to catch, besides forty
pounds of flour and a daily allowance of sour curds, or " skier."
All the men belonging to a boat generally live in the same damp and nar-
row hut. At daybreak they launch forth, to brave for many hours the inclem-
encies of the weather and the sea, and while engaged in their hard day's work
their sole refreshment is the chewing of tobacco or a mofithful of skier. On
returning to their comfortless hut, their supper consists of the fishes of inferior
quality they may have caught, or of the heads of the cod or Ung, which are too
valuable for their own consumption. These are split open and hung upon lines,
or exposed on the shore to the cold wind and the hot sun ; this renders them
perfectly hard, and they keep good for years. In this dried state the cod is
called stockfish. About the middle of May the migratory fishermen return to
their homes, leaving their fish which are not yet quite dry to the care of the
fishermen dwelling on the spot. Towards the middle of June, when the horses
have so far recovered from their long winter's fast as to be able to bear a load,
they come back to fetch their stockfish, which they convey either to their own
homes for the consumption of their own families, or to the nearest port for the
purpose of bartering it against other articles. Haddocks, flatfish, and herrings
are also very abundant in the Icelandic seas ; and along the northern and north-
western coasts the basking shark is largely fished for all the summer. Strong
hooks baited with mussels or pieces of fish, and attached to chains anchored at
a short distance from the shore, serve for the capture of this monster, which is
scarcely, if at all, inferior in size to the white shark, though not nearly so for-
midable, as it rarely attacks man. ' The skin serves for making sandals ; the
coarse flesh is eaten by the islanders, whom necessity has taught not to be over-
nice in their food ; and the liver, the most valuable part, is stewed for the sake
of its oil.
" We had observed," says Mr. Shepherd, " that the horrible smell which in-
fested Jsa-fjordr varied in intensity as we approached or receded from a cer-
tain black-looking building at the northern end of the town. On investigating
this building, we discovered that the seat of the smell was to be found in a
mass of putrid sharks' livers, part of which were undergoing a process of stew-
ing in a huge copper. It was a noisome green mass, fearful to contemplate.
The place was endurable only for a few seconds ; yet dirty-looking men stirred
up the mass with long poles, and seemed to enjoy the reeking vapors."
The salmon of Iceland, which formerly remained undisturbed by the phleg-
matic inhabitants, are now caught in large numbers for the British market. A
small river bearing the significant name of Laxaa, or Salmon Kiver, has been
rented for the trifling sum of £100 a year by an English company, which sends
every spring its agents to the spot well provided with the best fishing appara-
tus. The captured fish are immediately boiled, and hermetically packed in tin
boxes, so that they can be eaten in London almost as fresh as if they had just
been caught.
88 THE POLAR WORLD.
The mineral kingdom contributes but little to the prosperity of Iceland. It
affords neither metals, nor precious stones, nor rock-salt, nor coal; for the seams
of " surturbrand," or " lignite," found here and there, are too unimportant to
be worked. The solfataras of Krisuvik and Ilusavik, though extremely inter-
esting to the geologist, likewise furnish sulphur in too impure a condition or
too thinly scattered to afford any prospect of being worked with success, not
to mention the vast expense of transport over the almost impassable lava-tracks
that separate them from the nearest ports. In 1839-40, when, in consequence
of the monopoly grS,nted by the Neapolitan Government to a French company,
sulphur had risen to more than three times its usual price, Mr. Knudsen, an en-
terprising Danish merchant, undertook to work the mines of Krisuvik, but even
then it would not answer.
In 1859, a London company, founded by Mr, Bushby, — who having explored
the sulphur districts, bad raised great expectations on what he considered their
dormant wealth, — renewed the attempt, but after a year's trial it was aban-
doned as perfectly hopeless. The " solfataras of Iceland," says Professor Sar-
torius of Waltershausen, " can not compete with those of Sicily, where more
sulphur is wantonly wasted and trodden under foot than all Iceland possesses.
While the " Namars" of the north, which are far richer than those of Krisuvik,
annually furnish scarcely more than ten tons, the sulphur mines of Sicily pro-
duce at least 50,000, and, if necessary, could easily export double the quantity."
As coal is too expensive a fuel for any but the rich in the small sea-port
towns, and peat, though no doubt abundantly scattered over the island, is dug
only in a few places, the majority of the people make use of singular substi-
tutes. The commonest is dried cow's and sheep's dung; but many a poor
fisherman lacks even this " spicy " material, and is fain to use the bones of
animals, the skeletons of fishes or dried sea-birds, which, Avith a stoical con-
tempt for his olfactory organs, he burns, feathers and all. There is, however,
no want of fuel in those privileged spots where drift-wood is found, and here
the lava hearth of the islander cheerfully blazes either with the pine conveyed
to him by the kindly Polar currents from the Siberian forests, or with some
tropical trunk, wafted by the Gulf Stream over the Atlantic to his northerzx
home.
HISTORY OF ICELAND.
89
CATHEDRAL AT KETKJAVIK.
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF ICELAND.
Discoverj' of the Island bj' Naddodr in 861.— Gardar.— Floki of the Ravens.— Ingolfr and Leif.— Ulfliot
the Lawgiver.— The Althing.— Thingvalha.-Introduction of Christianit3-into the Island.— Frederick
the Saxon and ThorwoldtheTraveller.—Thangbrand.— Golden Age of Icelandic Literature.— Snorri
Sturleson.— The Island submits to Hakon, King of Norway, in 1254.— Long Series of Calamities.—
Great Eruption of the Skapta Jokul in 1783.— Commercial Monopoly.— Better Times in Prospect.
THE Norse vikings were, as is well known, the boldest of navigators. They
possessed neither the sextant nor the compass ; they had neither charts
nor chronometers to guide them ; but trusting solely to fortune, and to their
own indomitable courage, they fearlessly launched forth into the vast ocean.
Many of these intrepid corsairs were no doubt lost on their adventurous expe-
ditions, but frequently a favorable chance rewarded their temerity, either with
some rich booty or some more glorious discovery.
Thus in the year 861, Naddodr, a Norwegian pirate, while sailing from his
native coast to the Faeroe Islands, was drifted by contrary winds far to the
90 #THE POLAR WORLD.
north. For several clays no land was visible — notliing but an interminable
waste of waters; when suddenly the snow-clad mountains of Iceland were seen
to rise above the mists of the ocean. Soon after Naddodr landed with part of
his crew, but discovered no traces of man in the desert country. The viking
tarried but a short time on this unpromising coast, on which he bestowed the
api^ropriate name of Snowland.
Three years later, Gardar, another northern freebooter, while sailing to the
Hebrides, was likewise driven by stormy weather to Iceland. He was the first
circumnavigator of the island, which he called, after himself, Gardar's holm, or
the island of Gardar. On his return to his native port, he gave his countrymen
so flattering an account of the newly-discovered land, that Floki, a famous vi-
king, resolved to settle there. Trusting to the augury of birds, Floki took with
him three ravens to direct him on his way. Having sailed a certain distance
beyond the Faeroe Islands, he gave liberty to one of them, Avhich immediately
returned Xo the land. Proceeding onward, he loosed the second, which, after
circling for a few minutes round the ship, again settled on its cage, as if terri-
fied by the boundless expanse of the sea. The third bird, on obtaining his lib-
erty a few days later, proved at length a faithful pilot, and flying direct to the
north, conducted Floki to Iceland, As the sea-king entered the broad bay
which is bounded on the left by the huge Snafells Jokul, and on the right by
the bold promontory of the Guldbringe Syssel, Faxa, one of his companions, re-
marked that a land with such noble features must needs be of considerable ex-
tent. To reward him for this remark, which flattei'ed the vanity or the ambi-
tion of his leader, the bay was immediately named Faxa Fiord, as it is still call-
ed to the present day. The new colonists, attracted by the abundance of fish
they found in the bay, built their huts on the borders of a small outlet, still
bearing the name of Rafna Fiord, or the Raven's Frith ; but as they neglected
to make hay for the winter, the horsdS and cattle they had brought with them
died of want. Disappointed in his expectations, Floki returned home in the sec-
ond year, and, as might naturally have been expected from an unsuccessful settler,
gave his countrymen but a dismal account of Iceland, as he definitely named it.
Yet, in spite of his forbidding description, the political disturbances which
took place about this time in Norway led to the final colonization of the island.
Harold Haarfager, or the Fair-haired, a Scandinavian yarl, having by violence
and a successful policy reduced all his brother-yarls to subjection, first consoli-
dated their independent domains into one realm, and made himself absolute mas-
ter of the whole country. Many of his former equals submitted to his yoke ;
but others, animated by that unconquerable love of liberty innate in men who
for many generations have known no superior, preferred seeking a new home
across the ocean to an ignominious vassalage under the detested Harold. In-
golfr and his cousin Leif were the first of these high-minded nobles that emi-
grated (869-870) to Iceland.
On approaching the southern coast, Ingolfr cast the sacred pillars belonging
to his former dwelling into the water, sifd vowed to establisli himself on the
spot to which they should be wafted by the waves. His pious intentions were
for the time frustrated, as a sudden squall separated liini from his penates, and
HISTORY OF ICELANO^ 91
forced him to locate himself on a neighboring promontory, which to this day-
bears the name of Ingolfrshofde. Here he sojourned three years, until the fol-
lowers he had sent out in quest of the missing 23illars at length brought him the
joyful news that they had been found on the beach of the present site of Reyk-
javik, whither, in obedience to what he supposed to be the divine summons, he
instantly removed. Ingolfr's friend and relative Leif was shortly after- assas-
sinated by some Irish slaves whom he had captured in a predatory descent on
the Hibernian coast. The surviving chieftain deplored the loss of his kinsman,
lamenting " that so valiant a man should fall by such villains," but found conso-
lation by killing the murderers and annexing the lands of their victim. When,
in course of time, he himself felt his end approaching, he requested to be bur-
ied on a hill overlooking the fiord, that from that elevated site his spirit might
have a better view of the land of which he was the first inhabitant.
Such are the chronicles related in the " Landnama Bok," or " Book of Occu-
pation," one of the earliest records of Icelandic history.
Ingolfr and his companions were soon followed by other emigrants desirous
of escaping from the tyranny of Harold Haarfager, who at first favored a move-
ment that removed far beyond the sea so many of his turbulent opponents, but
subsequently, alarmed at the drain of population, or desirous of profiting by' the
exodus, levied a fine of four ounces of silver on all who left his dominions to
settle in Iceland. Yet such were the attractions which the island at tha! time
presented, that, in spite of all obstacles, not half a century elapsed before all its
inhabitable parts were occupied, not only by Norwegians, but also by settlers
from Denmark and Sweden, Scotland and Ireland.
The Norwegians brought Avith them their language and idolatry, their cus-
toms and historical records, which the other colonists, but few in numbers, were
compelled to adopt. At first the udal, or free land-hold system of their OAvn
country, was in vigor, but every leader of a band of emigrants being chosen, by
force of circumstances, as the acknowledged chief of the district occupied by
himself and companions, speedily paved the way for a demi-feudal system of
vassalage and subservience. As the arrival of new settlers rendered the pos-
session of the land more valuable, endless contests between these petty chiefs
arose for the better pastures and fisheries. To put an end to this state of an-
archy, so injurious to the common weal, Ulfliot the Wise was commissioned to
frame a code of laws, which the Icelanders, by a single simultaneous and peace-
ful effort, accepted as their future constitution.
The island was now divided into four provinces and twelve districts. Each
district had its own judge, and its own popular " Thing," or assembly ; but the
national will was embodied and represented by the "Althing," or supreme
parliament of Iceland, which annually met at Thingvalla, under an elective pres-
ident, or " Logmathurman," the chief magistrate of this northern republic.
On the banks of the river Oxeraa, where the rapid stream, after forming a
magnificent cascade, rushes into the lake of Thingvalla, lies the spot where, for
many a century, freemen met to debate, while despotic barbarians still reigned
over the milder regions of Europe. Isolated on all sides by deep volcanic
chasms, which some great revolution of nature has rent in the vast lava-field
THE POLAR WORLD.
THINGVALLA, LOGBERG, AND ALMANNAGJA.
avound, and embosomed in a wide cii'cle of black j^recipitous hills, the situation
of Thingvalla is extremely romantic, but the naked dark-colored rocks, and the
traces of subterranean fire visible on every side, impart a stern melancholy to
the scene. The lake, the largest sheet of water in the island, is about thirty
miles in circumference ; its boundaries have undergone many changes, especial-
ly during the earthquakes of the past century, when its northern margin col-
lapsed, while the opposite one was raised. The depth of its crystal waters is
very great, and in its centre rise two small crater-islands, the result of some un-
known eruption. The mountains on its south bank have a picturesque appear-
ance, and large volumes of steam issuing from several hot sources on their
sides prove that, though all be tranquil now, the volcanic fires are not extinct.
Only a few traces of the ancient Althing are left— three femall mounds, where
sat in state the chiefs and judges of the land— for as the assembly used to pitch
their tents on the borders of the stream, and the deliberations were held in the
open air, there are no imposing riiins to bear witness to a glorious past. But
though all architectural pomp be absent, the scene hallowed by the recollections
of a thousand years is one of deep interest to the traveller. The great features
of nature are the same as when the freemen of Iceland assembled to settle the
affairs of their little world ; but the raven now croaks where the orator appealed
to the reason or the passions of his audience, and the sheep of the neighboring
pastor crop imdisturbed the grass of desecrated Thingvalla.
Mr. Ross Browne thus describes the scene : " After a slight repast I walked
out to take a look at the Logberg, or Rock of Laws, which is situated about
HISTORY OF ICELAND. 93
half a mile from the church. This is, perhaps, of all the objects of historical
association in Iceland, the most interesting. It Avas here the judges tried crim-
inals, pronounced judgments, and executed their stern decrees. On a small pla-
teau of lava, separated from the general mass by a profound abyss on every
side, save a narrow neck barely wide enough for a foothold, the famous " Thing "
assembled once a year, and, secured from intrusion in their deliberations by the
terrible chasm around, passed laws for the weal or woe of the people. It was
only necessary to guard the causeway by which they entered ; all other sides
were well protected by the encircUng moat, which varies from thirty to forty
feet in width, and is half filled with water. The total depth to the bottom,
which is distinctly visible through the crystal pool, must be sixty or seventy
feet. Into this yawning abyss the unhappy criminals were cast, with stones
around their necks, and many a long day did they He beneath the Avater, a
ghastly spectacle for the crowd that peered at them over the precipice.
All was now as silent as the grave. Eight centuries had passed, and yet
the strange scenes that had taken place here were vividly before me. I
could imagine the gathering crowds, the rising hum of voices ; the pause,
the shriek, and plunge ,• the low murmur of horror, and then the stei-n warn-
ing of the lawgivers and the gradual dispersing of the multitude. The di-
mensions of the plateau are four or five hundred feet in length by an aver-
age of sixty or eighty in width. The surface is now covered with a fine
coating of sod and grass^ and furnishes good pasturage for the sheep belong-
ing to the pastor."
Christianity was first preached in Iceland about the year 981, by Friedrich, a
Saxon bishop, to whom Thorwald the traveller, an Icelander, acted as inter-
preter. Thorwald having been treated with great severity l)y his father, Ko-
dran, had fled to Denmark, where he had been converted by Friedrich. He
returned with the pious bishop to his paternal home, where the solemn service
of the Christians made some impression on Kodran, but still the obstinate pa-
gan could not be prevailed upon to renounce his ancient gods. " He must be-
lieve," said he, " the word of his own priest, who was wont to give him excel-
lent advice." " Well, then," replied Thorwald, " this venerable man whom I
have brought to thy dwelling is weak and infirm, while thy well-fed priest is
full of vigor. Wilt thou believe in the power of our God if the bishop drives
him hence ?" Friedrich now cast a few drops of holy water on the priest, which
immediately burnt deep holes^ into his skin, so that he fled, uttering dreadful
curses. After this convincing proof, Kodran adopted the Christian faith. But
persuasion and miracles acted too slowly for the fiery Thorwald, who would
willingly have converted all Iceland at once with fire and sword. His sermons
were imprecations, and the least contradiction roused him to fury. Unable to
bear so irascible an associate, the good bishop Friedrich, giving up his mission-
ary labors, returned to Saxony. As to Thorwald, his restless disposition led
him to far-distant lands. He visited Greece and Syria, Jerusalem and Constan-
tinople, and ultimately founded a convent in Russia, where he died in the odor
of sanctity.
Soon after Thangbrand was sent by the Norwegian king, Olaf Truggcson, as
94 THE POLxVR WORLD.
missionary to Icelaiid. His method of conversion appears to have been very-
like that of his erratic predecessor ; for while he held the cross in one hand, he
grasped the sword with the other. " Thangbrand," says an ancient chronicler,
" was a passionate, ungovernable person, and a great manslayer, but a good
scholar and clever. He was two years in Iceland, and was the death of three
men before he left it."
Other missionaries of a more evangelical character took his place, and proved
by their success that mild reasoning is frequently a far more effectual means of
persuasion than brutal violence. They made a great number of proselytes, and
the Avhole island was now divided into two factions ready to appeal to the
sword for the triumph of Christ or of Odin. But before coming to this dread-
ful extremity, the voice of reason was heard, and the contending parties agreed
to submit the question to the decision of the Althing.
The assembly met, and the momentous debate was proceeding, when sud-
denly a loud crash of subterranean thunder was heard, and the earth shook un-
der their feet. " Listen !" exclaimed a follower of Odin, " and beware of the
anger of our gods : they will consume us with their fires, if we venture to ques-
tion their authority." The Christian party hesitated ; but their confidence was
soon restored by the presence of mind of their chief orator, Thorgeir, who,
pointing to the lava-fields around, asked with M'hom the gods were angry when
these rocks were melted : a burst of eloquence which at once decided the ques-
tion in favor of the Cross.
The new faith brought with it a new spirit of intellectual development, which
attained its highest splendor in the twelfth century. Classical studies were
pursued with the utmost zeal, and learned Icelanders travelled to Germany and
France to extend their knowledge in the schools of Paris or Cologne. The
Icelandic bards, or scalds, were renowned throughout all Scandinavia ; they fre-
quented the courts of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, and were everywhere
received with the highest honors.
The historians, or sagamen, of Iceland were no less renowned than its scalds.
They became the annalists of the whole Scandinavian world, and the simplicity
and truth by which their works are distinguished fully justify their high repu-
tation. Among the many remarkable men who at that time graced the litera-
ture of the Arctic isle, Samund Frode, the learned author of the " Voluspa "
(a work on the ancient Icelandic mythology) and the "Havamal" (a general
chronicle of events from the bieginning of the world) ; Are Thorgilson, whose
"Landnama Bok" relates with the utmost accuracy the annals of his native
land ; and Gissur, who about the year 1180 described his A'oyages to the distant
Orient, deserve to be particularly mentioned ; but great above all in genius and
fame was Snorri Stui'leson, the Herodotus of the North, whose eventful life and
tragic end would well deserve to be recounted at greater length.
Gifted with the rarest talents, and chief of the most powerful family of the
island, Snorri was elected in 1215 to the high office of Logmathurman ; but dis-
gusting his sturdy countrymen by his excessive haughtiness, he was obliged to
retire to the court of Hakon, king of Norway. During this exile he collected
the materials for his justly celebrated " Heimskringla,"' or Chronicle of the
HISTORY OF ICELAND. 95
Kings of Norway. Returniug home in 1221, he was again named Logmathur-
man ; but as he endeavored to pave the way for the annexation of his native
country to the Norwegian realm, his foreign intrigues caused a rising against
his authority, and he was once more compelled to take refuge in Norway.
Here he remained several years, until the triumph of his own faction allowed
him to return to his family estate at Reikholt, where he was murdered on a
dark September night in the year 1241. Thus perished the most remarkable
man Iceland ever has produced. The republic itself did not long survive his
fall ; for, weary of the interminable feuds of their chiefs, the people voluntarily
submitted to Hakon in 1254, and the middle of the thirteenth century was
signalized by the transfer of the island to the Norwegian crown, after three
hundred and forty years of a turbulent but glorious independence.
From that time the political history of the Icelanders offers but little inter-
est. With their annexation to a European monarchy perished the vigor, rest-
lessness, and activity which had characterized their forefathers ; and though
the Althing still met at Thingvalla, the national spirit had fled. It was still
further subdued by a long chain of calamities — plagues, famines, volcanic erup-
tions, and piratical invasions — which, following each other in rapid succession,
devastated the land and decimated its unfortunate inhabitants.
In 1402 that terrible plague, the memory of which is still preserved xinder
the name of the " Black Death," carried off nearly two-thirds of the whole pop-
ulation, and was followed by such an inclement Avinter that nine-tenths of the
cattle in the island died. The miseries of a people suffering from pestilence
and famine were aggravated by the English fishermen, who, in spite of the re-
monstrances of the Danish government, frequented the defenseless coast in con-
siderable numbers, and were in fact little better than the old sea-robbers who
first colonized the island, plundering and burning on the main, and holding the
Avealthy inhabitants to ransom. Their predatory incursions were frequently re-
peated during the seventeenth century, and even the distant Mediterranean sent
its Algerine pirates to add to the calamities of Iceland.
The eighteenth century was ushered in by the small-pox, which carried off
sixteen thousand of the inhabitants. In the middle of the dentury — severe win-
ters following in rapid succession — vast numbers of cattle died, inducing a fam-
ine that again swept away ten thousand inhabitants.
Since the first colonization of Iceland, its numerous volcanoes had frequently
brought ruin upon whole districts — twenty-five times had Hecla, eleven times
Kotlugia, six times TroUadyngja, five times Oraefa, vomited forth their tor-
rents of molten stone, without counting a number of submarine volcanic explo-
sions, or where the plain was suddenly rent and flames and ashes burst out of
the earth; but the eruption of Skaptar Jokul in 1783 was the most fj-ightful
visitation ever known to have desolated the island. The preceding winter and
spring had been unusually mild, and the islanders looked forward to a prosper-
ous summer ; but in the beginning of June repealipd tremblings of the earth,
increasing in violence from day to day, announced that the subterranean powers
that had long been slumbering under the icy mantle of the Skaptar were ready
to awake. All the neighboring peasants abandoned their huts and erected
96 THE POLAR WORLD.
tents in the open field, anxiously awaiting the result of these terrific warnings.
On the 9th, immense pillars of smoke collected over the hill country toward the
north, and, rolling down in a southerly direction, covered the whole district of
Sitha with darkness. Loud subterranean thunders followed in rapid succession,
and innumerable fire-spouts were seen leaping and flaring through the dense
canopy of smoke and ashes that enveloped the land. The heat raging in the
interior of the volcano melted enormous masses of ice and snow, which caused
the river Skapta to rise to a prodigious height; but on the 11th torrents of
fire usurped the place of water, for a vast lava-stream breaking forth from the
mountains, flowed down in a southerly direction, until reaching the river, a tre-
mendous conflict arose between the two hostile elements. Though the channel
Avas six hundred feet deep and two hundred feet wide, the lava-flood pouring
down one fiery wave after another into the yawning abyss, ultimately gained
the victory, and, blocking up the stream, overflowed its banks. Crossing the
low country of Medalland, it poured into a great lake, which after a few days
was likewise completely filled up, and having divided into two streams, the un-
exhausted torrent again poured on, overflowing in one direction some ancient
lava-fields, and in another re-entering the channel of the Skapta and leaping
dow^n the lofty cataract of Stapafoss. But this was not all, for while one lava-
flood had chosen the Skapta for its bed, another, descending in a different direc-
tion, was working similar ruin along the banks of the Hverfisfliot. Whether
the same crater gave birth to both, it is impossible to say, as even the extent
of the lava-flow can only Be measured fi-om the spot wiiere it entered the in-
habited districts. The stream which followed the direction of Skapta is calcu-
lated to have been about fifty miles in length by twelve or fifteen at its great-
est breadth ; that which rolled down the Hverfisfliot, at forty miles in length
by seven in breadth.
Where it was inclosed between the precipitous banks of the Skapta, the
lava is five or six hundred feet thick, but as soon as it spread out into the plain
its depth never exceeded one hundred feet. The eruption of sand, ashes,
pumice, and lava continued till the end of August, when at length the vast sub-
terranean tumult subsided.
But its direful effects were felt for a long time after, not only in its imme-
diate vicinity, but over the whole of Iceland, and added many a mournful page
to her long annals of sorrow. For a whole year a dun canopy of cinder-laden
clouds hung over the unhappy island. Sand and ashes, carried to an enormous
height into the atmosphere, spread far* and. wide, and overwhelmed thousands
of acres of fertile pasturage. The Faeroes, the Shetlands, and the Orkneys
were deluged with volcanic dust which perceptibly contaminated even the skies
of England and Holland. Mephitic vapors obscured the rays of the sun, and
the sulphurous exhalations tainted both the grass of the field and the waters
of the lake, the river, and the sea, so that not only the cattle died by thousands,
but the fish also perished in, their poisoned element. The unhealthy air, and
the want of food — for hunger at last drove them to have recourse to untanned
hides and old leather — gave rise to a disease resembling scurvy among the un-
fortunate Icelanders. The head and limbs began to swell, the bones seemed
HISTORY OF ICELAND. 97
to be distending. Dreadful cramjjs forced tlie patient to strange contortions.
The gums loosened, the decomposed blood oozed from the mouth and the ulcer-
ous skin, and a few days of torment and prostration were followed by death.
In many a secluded vale wliole families were swept away, and those that es-
caped the scourge had hardly strength sufficient to bury the dead.
So great was the ruin caused by this one eruption that in the short space of
two years no less than 9336 men, 28,000 horses, 11,461 cattle, and 190,000
sheep — a large proportion of the wealth and population of the island — were
swept away.
After this dreadful catastrophe followed a long period of volcanic rest, for
the next eruption of the Eyjafialla did not take place before 1821. A twelfth
eruption of Kotlugja occurred in 1823, the twenty-sixth of Ilecla in 1845-46 ;
and ultimately the thirteenth of Kotlugja in 1860. Since then there has been
repose ; but who knows what futui-e disasters may be preparing beneath those
icy ridges and fields of snow of Skapta and his frowning compeers, where no
human foot has ever wandered, or how soon they may awaken their dormant
thunders ?
Besides the sufferings caused by the elements, the curse of monopoly
weighed for many a long year upon the miserable Icelanders. The Danish
kings, to whom on the amalgamation of the three Scandinavian monarchies the
allegiance of the people of Iceland was j^assively transferred, considered their
poor dependency as a private domain, to be farmed out to the highest bidder.
In the 16th century the Haiiseatic Towns purchased the exclusive privilege of
trading with Iceland; and in 1594 a Danish company was favored with the
monopoly, for which it had to pay the paltry sum of 16 rix-dollars for each of
the ports of the island.
In the year 1862 a new company paid 4000 dollars for the Icelandic mo-
nopoly ; bvit at the expiration of the contract, each of the ports Avere farmed out
to the highest bidder — a financial improvement which raised the revenue to
16,000 dollars a year, and ultimately to 22,000. The incalculable misery pro-
duced by the eruption of the Skapta had at least the beneficial consequence
that it somewhat loosened the bonds of monopoly, as it now became free to
every Danish merchant to trade with the island; but it is only since April, 1855,
that the last restrictions have fallen and the ports of Iceland been opened to
the merchants of all nations. It is to be hoped that the beneficial effects of
free trade will gradually heal the wounds caused by centuries of neglect and
misfortune ; but great progress must be made before Iceland can attain the de-
gree of prosperity which she enjoyed in the times of her independence.
Then she had above a hundred thousand inhabitants, now she has scarcely
half that number ; then she had many rich and powerful families, now medioc-
rity or poverty is the universal lot ; then she Avas renowned all over the Xorth
as the seat of learning and the cradle of literature, now, were it not for her re-
markable physical features, no traveller n'ould ever think of landing on her
THE POLAR WORLD,
KEYKJAVIK, THE CAPITAL OF ICELAND.
C^HAPTER VII.
THE ICELANDERS.
Skalholt.— Reykjavik.— The Fair. — The Peasant
and the Merchant. — A Clergyman in his Cups.
— Haj'-niaking. — The Icelander's Hut. — Church-
es.—Poverty of the Clergy.— Jon Thorlaksen.
— The Seminary of Reykjavik. — Beneficial Influ-
ence of the Clergy. — Home Education. — The Ice-
lander's Winter's Evening. — Taste for Literature.
— The Language. — The Public Library' at Reyk-
javik.— The Icelandic Literary Society. — Icelandic Newspapers. — Longevity. — Leprosy.— Travelling
in Iceland.— Fording the Rivers.— Crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.— A Night's Bivouac.
"VTEXT to Thingvalla, there is no place in Iceland so replete with historical
interest as Skalholt, its ancient capital. Here in the eleventh century was
founded the first school in the island ; here was the seat of its first bishops ;
here flourished a succession of great orators, historians, and poets ; Isleif, the
oldest chronicler of the North ; Gissur, who in the beginning of the twelfth
century had visited all the countries of Europe and spoke all their languages ;
the philologian Thorlak, and Finnur Johnson, the learned author of the " Ec-
clesiastical History of Iceland." The Cathedral of Skalholt was renowned far
and wide for its size, and in the year 1100, Latin, poetry, -music, and rhetoric,
the four liberal arts, were taught in its school, more than they were at that time
THE ICELANDERS.
99
in many of the large European cities. As a proof how early the study of the
ancients flowrished in Skalholt, we find it recorded that in the twelfth century
a bishop once caught a scholar reading Ovid's "»Art of Love ;" and as the story
relates that the venerable pastor flew into a violent passion at the sight of the
unholy book, Ave may without injustice conclude that he must have read it him-
self in some of his leisure hours, to know its character so well.
Of all its past glories, Skalholt has retained nothing but its name. The
school and the bishopric have been removed, the old church has disappeared,
and been replaced by a small wooden building, in which divine service is held
once a month ; three cottages contain all the inhabitants of the once celebrated
city, and the extensive churchyard is the only memorial of its foi-mer impor-
tance. Close by are the ruins of the old school-house, and on the spot where the
bishop resided a peasant has erected his miserable hovel.
But the ever-changing tide of human affairs has not bereft the now lonely
place of its natural charms, for the meadow-lands of Skalholt are beautifully im-
bedded in an undulating range of hills, overlooking the junction of the Bruara
and Huita, and backed by a magnificent theatre of mountains, among which
Hecla and the Eyjafialla are the most prominent.
iwi'^i^''«™™i
governor's residence, REYKJAVIK.
Reykjavik, the present capital of the island, has risen into importance at the
expense both of Skalholt and Thingvalla. At the beginning of the present cen-
tury the courts of justice were transferred from the ancient seat of legislature
to the new metropolis, and in 1797 the bishoprics of Hoolum and Skalholt,
united into one, had their seats likewise transferred to Reykjavik. The ancient
school of Skalholt, after having first migrated to Bessestadt, has also been
100 TliE POLAR TVORLD.
obliged to follow the centralizing tendency, so powerful in our times, and now
contributes to the rising fortunes of the small sea-port town.
But in spite of all these accessions, the first aspect of Reykjavik by no means
corresponds to our ideas of a capital. " The town," says Lord Dufferin, " con-
sists of a collection of wooden sheds, one story high — rising here and there into
a gable end of greater pretensions — built along the lava-track, and flanked at
either end by a suburb of turf huts. On every side of it extends a desolate
plain of lava that once must have boiled up red-hot from some distant gateway
of hell, and fallen hissing into the sea. No tree or bush relieves the dreariness
of the landscape, and the mountains are too distant to serve as a background to
the buildings ; but Ibefore the door of each merchant's house facing the sea
there flies a gay little pennon ; and as you walk along the silent streets, whose
dust no carriage-wheel has ever desecrated, the rows of flower-pots that peep out
of the Avindows, between curtains of white muslin^ at once convince you that,
notwithstanding their unpretending appearance, within each dwelling reign the
elegance and comfort of a woman-tended home."
Twenty years since, Reykjavik was no better than a wretched fishing-village,
now it already numbers 1400 inhabitants, and free-trade promises it a still
greater increase for the future. It owes its prosperity chiefly to its excellent
port, and to the abundance of fish-banks in its neighborhood, which have induced
the Danish merchants to make it their principal settlement. Most of them, how-
ever, merely visit it in summer like birds of passage, arriving in May with small
cargoes of foreign goods, and leaving it aga!in in August, after having disposed
of their wares. Thus Reykjavik must be lonely and dreary enough in winter,
when no trade animates its port, and no traveller stays at its solitary inn ; but
the joy of the inhabitants is all the greater when the return of spring re-opens
their intercourse with the rest of the Avorld, and the delight may be imagined
with which they hail the first ship that brings them the long-expected news from
Europe, and perhaps some wealthy tourist, eager to admire the wonders of the
Geysirs,
The most busy time of the town is, however, the beginning cf July, when the
annual fair attracts a great number of fishermen and peasants within its walls.
From a distance of forty and fifty leagues around, they come with long trains
of pack-horses ; their stock-fish slung freely across the animals' backs, their
more damageable articles close pressed and packed in boxes or skin bags.
The greater part of the trade in this and other small sea-ports — such as
Akreyri, IIafnafjord,Eyrarbacki, Berufjord, Vapnafjord, Isafjord, Grafaros,Bu.
denstadt, which, taken all together, do not equal Reykjavik in trafiic and pop-
ulation— is carried on by barter.*
Sometimes the Icelander desires to be paid in specie for part of his produce,
but then he is obliged to bargain for a long time with the merchant, who of
course derives a double profit by an exchange of goods, and is loth to part with
* In 1855, Iceland imported, among others, 65,712 pieces of timber, 148,038 lbs. of iron, 37,700 lbs.
hemp, 15,179 fishing-lines, 20,342 lbs. salt, 6539 tons of coal.
The chief exportations of the same year were, tallow, 932,906 lbs., wool, 1,569,323 lbs., 69,305 pairsof
stockings, 27,109 pairs of gloves, 12,712 salted sheepskins, 4110 lbs. eider-downs, 25,000 lbs. other feath-
ers. 244 horses, and 24,079 ship's pounds (the sbii)'s p 'und = 320 lbs.) salt fish.
THE ICELANDERS. 101
his hard cash. The dollars tlius acquired are either melted down, and worked
into silver massive girdles, which in point of execution as well as design are said,
on good authority,* to be equal to any thing of the kind fashioned by English
jewellers, or else deposited in a strong-box, as taxes and wages are all paid in
produce, and no Icelander ever thinks of investing his money yi stocks, shares,
or debentures.
He is, however, by no means so ignorant of mercantile affairs as to strike at
once a bargain with the Danish traders. Pitching his tent before the town, he
first pays a visit to all the merchants of the place. After carefully noting their
several offers (for as each of them invariably ti'eats him to a dram, he with
some justice mistrusts his memory), he returns to his caravan and makes his
calculations as well as his somewhat confused brain allows him. If he is ac-
companied by his wife, her opinion of course is decisive, and the following
morning he repairs with all his goods to the merchant who has succeeded in
gaining his confidence.
After the business has been concluded, the peasant empties one glass to the
merchant's health, another to a happy meeting next year, a third to the king, a
fourth because three have been drunk already. At length, after many embraces
and protestations of eternal friendship, he takes his leave of the merchant. For-
tunately there is no thief to be found in all Iceland ; but in consequence of these
repeated libations, one parcel has not been Avell packed, another negligently at-
tached to the horse, and thus it happens that the poor peasant's track is not un-
frequently marked with sugar, coffee-beans, salt, or -flour, and that when .he
reaches home, he finds some valuable article or other missing.
It would, however, be doing the Icelanders an injustice to regard them as
generally intemperate ; for though within the last twelve years the population
has increased only ten per cent., and the importation of brandy thirty, yet the
whole quantity of spirits consumed in the island amounts to less than three bot-
tles per annum for each individual, and, of this allowance, the people of Reykja-
vik and of the other small sea-ports have more than their share, while many of
the clergy and peasantry in the remoter districts hardly ever taste spirituous
liquors. Dr. Hooker mentions the extraordinary effect which a small portion
of rum produced on the good old incumbent of Middalr, whose stomach had
been accustomed only to a milk-diet and a little coffee. " He begged me,"
says the doctor,f " to give him some rum to bathe his wife's breast ; but hav-
ing applied a portion of it to that purpose,, he drank the rest without being at
all aware of its strength, which, however, had no other effect than in causing
this clerical blacksmith,;]; with his lame hip, to dance in the most ridiculous man-
ner in front of the house. The scene afforded a great source of merriment to
all his family except his old wife, who was very desirous of getting him to bed,
while he was no less anxious that she should join him in the dance."
Dr. Hooker justly remarks that this very circumstance is a convincing proof
how unaccustomed this priest was to spirituous liquors, as the quantity taken
could not have exceeded a wine-glass full.
* Barrow, "Visit to Iceland," 1834. t " Journal of a Tour in Iceland," p. 1V
I All the clergymen arc blacksmiths, for a reason that will h? stated hereafter.
102 TIIE POLAR WORLD.
After his visit to the fair, the peasant sets about hay-making, Avhich is to him
the great business of the year, for he is most anxious to secure winter fodder for
his cattle, on which his whole prosperity depends. The few potatoes and tur-
nips about the size of marbles, or the cabbage and parsley, which he may chance
to cultivate, arejiot worth mentioning ; grass is the chief, nay, the only produce
of his farm, and that Heaven may grant clear sunshiny days for hay-making is
now his daily prayer.
Every person capable of wielding a scythe or rake is pressed into the work.
The best hay is cut from the ■" t{m," a sort of paddock comprising the lands ad-
joining the farm-house, and the only part of his grounds on which the peasant
bestows any attention, for, in spite of the paramount importance of his pasture-
land, he does but little for its improvement, and a meadow is rarely seen, where
the useless or less nutritious herbs are not at least as abundant as those of a
better quality. The " tun " is encircled by a turf or stone wall, and is seldom
more than ten acres in extent, and generally not more than two or three. Its
surface is usually a series of closely-packed mounds, Uke graves, most unpleasant
to walk over, the gutter, in some places, being two feet in depth between the
mounds. After having finished with the " tun," the farmer subjects to a proc-
ess of cutting all the broken hillsides and boggy undrained swamps that lie
near his dAvelling. The blades of the scythes are very short. It would be im-
possible to use a long-bladed scythe, owing to the unevenness of the ground.
The cutting and making of hay is carried on, when the weather will permit,
through all the twenty-four hours of the day. When the hay is made it is tied
in bundles by cords and thongs, and carried away by ponies to the earthen
houses prepared for it, which are similar to and adjoin those in which the cattle
are stalled. " It is a very curious sight," says Mr. Shepherd, " to see a string
of hay-laden ponies returning home. Each pony's halter is made fast to the
tail of the preceding one, and the little animals are so enveloped in their bur-
dens that nothing but their hoofs and the connecting ropes are visible, and they
look as though a dozen huge haycocks, feeling themselves sufficiently made,
were crawling off to their resting-places."
When the harvest is finished the farmer treats his family and laborers to a
substantial supper, consisting of mutton, and a soup of milk and flour ; and
although the serious and taciturn Icelander has perhaps of all men the least
taste for music and dancing, yet these simple feasts are distinguished by a plac-
id serenity, no less pleasing than. the more boisterous mirth displayed at a
southern vintage.
Almost all labor out-of-doors now ceases for the rest of the year. A thick
mantle of snow soon covers mountain and vale, meadow and moor ; with every
returning day, the sim pays the cold earth a decreasing visit, until, finally, he
hardly appears above the horizon at noon ; the wintry storm howls over the
waste, and for months the life of the Icelander is confined to his hut, which
frequently is but a few degrees better than that of the filthy Lap.
Its lower part is built of rude stones to about the height of four feet, and
between each row layers of turf are placed with great regularity, to serve in-
stead of mortar, and keep out the wind, A roof of such wood as can be pro-
THE ICELANDERS.
103
ICELANDIC HOUSES.
cured rests upon tliese walls, and is covered with turf and sods. On one side
(generally facing the south) are several gable ends and doors, each surmounted
with a weather-cock. These are the entrances to the dwelling-house proper, to
the smithy, store-room, cow-shed, etc. A long narrow passage, ^iark as pitch,
and redolent of unsavory odors, leads to the several apartments, which are sep-
arated from each other by thick walls of turf, each having also its own roof, so
that the peasant's dwelling is in fact a conglomeration of low huts, which some-
times receive their light through small windows in the front, but more frequent-
ly through holes in the roof, covered with a piece of glass or skin. The floors
are of stamped earth ; the hearth is made of a few stones clumsily piled togeth-
er ; a cask or barrel, with the two ends knocked out, answers the purpose of a
chimney, or else the smoke is allowed to escape through a mere hole in the roof.
The thick turf walls, the dirty floor, the personal uncleanliness of the inhab-
itants, all contribute to the pollution of the atmosphere. No piece of furniture
seems ever to have been cleaned since it was first put into use ; all is disorder
and confusion. Ventilation is utterly impossible, and the whole family, fre-
quently consisting of twenty persons or more, sleep in the same dormitory, as
well as any strangers who may happen to drop in. On either side of this
apartment are bunks three or four feet in width, on which the sleepers range
themselves.
Such are in general the dwellings of the farmers and clergy, for but very
few of the more wealthy inhabitants live in any way according to our notions of
comfort, while the cots of the poor fisherman are so Avretched that one can
hardlv believe them to be tenanted by human beings.
104 THE POLAK WORLD.
The fm-m-honses are frequently isolated, and, on account of tlieir grass-cover-
ed roofs and their low construction, are not easily distinguished from the neigh-
boring pastui'e-grounds ; where four or five of th«m ai'e congregated in a grassy
plain, they are dignified with the name of a village, and become the residence
of a Ilrepstior, or parish constable.
Then also a church is seldom wanting, which however is distinguished f i-om
the low huts around merely by 'the cross planted on its roof. An Icelandic
house of prayer is generally from eight to ten feet wide, and from eighteen to
twenty-four long ; but of this about eight feet are devoted to the altar, which is
divided off by a partition stretching across the church, and against which stands
the pulpit. A small wooden chest or cupboard, placed at the end of the build-
ing, between two very small square windows not larger than a common-sized
pane of glass, constitutes the communion-table, over which is generally a miser-
able representation of the Lord's Supper painted on Avood. The height of the
walls, Avhich are wainscoted, is about six feet, and from them large wooden
beams stretch across from side to side. On these beams are placed in great
disorder a quantity of old Bibles, psalters, and fragments of dirty manuscripts.
The interior of the roof, the rafters of which rest on the walls, is also lined with
AVOod. On the ri'ght of the door, under which one is obliged to stoop consider-
ably on entering, is suspended a bell, large enough to make an intolerable noise
in so small a space. A few benches on each side the aisle, so crowded together
as almost to touch one another, and affording accommodation to thirty or forty
persons when squeezed very tight, leave room for a narrow passage.
These churches, besides their propei- use, are also made to answer the pur-
pose of the caravanseras of the East, by affording a night's lodging to foreign
tourists. They are indeed neither free from dirt, nor from bad smells ; but
the stranger is still far better off tlwn in the intolerable atmosphere of a peas-
ant's hut.
Mr. Ross BroAvne thus describes the church and parsonage at Thingvalla;'
" The church is of modern construction, and, like all I saAV in the interior, is
made of wood, painted a dark color, and roofed with boards covered with sheets
of tarred canvas. It is a very primitive little affair, only one story high, and
not more than fifteen by twenty feet in dimensions. From the date on the
weather-cock it appears to have been built in 1858. The congregation is sup-
plied by the few sheep-ranches in the neighborhood, consisting at most of half
a dozen families. These unpretending little churches are to be seen in the
vicinity of every settlement throughout the whole island. Simple and homely
as they are, they «peak well, for the pious character of the people.
" The pastor of Thingvalla and his family reside in a group of sod-covered
huts close by the church. These cheerless little hovels are really a curiosity,
none of them being over ten or fifteen feet high, and all huddled together with-
out the slightest regard to latitude or longitude, like a parcel of sheep in- a
storm. Some have Avindows in the roof, and some have chimneys ; grass and
Aveeds groAV all OA-er them, and crooked by-Avays and dark alleys run among
them and through them. At the base they are Availed up Avith big lumps of
b,va, and two of them have board fronts, painted black, Avhile the remainder are
THE ICELANDERS.
105
CULRCU AT TUINGVALLV
patched up with turf and rubbish of all sorts, very much in the style of a stork's
nest. A low stone wall encircles the premises, but seems to be of little use as a
barrier against the encroachments of live-stock, being broken up in gaps every
few yards. In front of the group some attempt has been made at a pavement,
w^hich, however, must have been abandoned soon after the work was com-
menced. It is now .littered all over with old tubs, pots, dish-cloths, and other
articles of domestic use.
"The interior of this strange abode is even more complicated than one
would be led to expect from the exterior. Passing through a dilapidated door-
Avay in one of the smaller cabins, which you would hardly suppose to be the
main entrance, you find, yourself in a long dark passage-way, built of rough
stone, and roofed with Avooden rafters and brushwood covered with sod. The
sides are ornamented with pegs stuck in the crevices between the stones, upon
which hang saddles, bridles, horse-shoes, bunches of herbs, dried fish, and various
articles of cast-off clothing, including old shoes and sheepskins. Wide or nar-
row, straight or crooked, to suit the sinuosities of the different cabins into
which it forms the entrance, it seems to have been originally located upon the
track of a bUnd boa-constrictor. The best room, or rather house— for every
room is a house — is set apart for the accommodation of travellers. Another
cabin is occupied by some members of the pastor's family, who bundle about
like a lot of rabbits. The kitchen is also the dog-kennel, and occasionally the
sheep-house. A pile of stones in one corner of it, upon which a few twigs or
scraps of sheep-manure serve to make the fire, constitute the cooking apartment.
The floor consists of the original lava-bed, and artificial puddles composed of
106
THE POLAR WORLD.
slops and offal of diverse unctuous kinds. Smoke fills all the cavities in the air
not already occupied by foul odors, and the beams, and post's, and rickety old
bits of furniture are dyed to the core with the dense and variegated atmosphere
around them. This is a fair .specimen of the whole estabhshment, with the ex-
ception of tthe travellers' room. The beds in these cabins am the chief arti-
cles of luxury."
The poverty of the clergy corresponds with the meanness of their churches.
The best living in the island is that of Breide'-Bolstadr, where the nominal
stipend amounts to 180 specie dollars, or about £40 a year; and Mr. Hol-
land states that the average livings do not amount to more than £10 for each
parish in the island. The clergymen must therefore depend almost entirely
for subsistence on their glebe land, and a small pittance to which they are
entitled for the few baptisms, marriages, and funerals that occur among their
parishioners. The bishop himself has only 2000 rix-doUars, or £200, a year,
a miserable pittance to make a decent appearance, and to exercise hospitality
to the clergy who visit Reykjavik from distant parts.
It can not be wondered at that pastors thus miserably paid are generally
oMiged to perform the hardest work of day laborers to preserve their families
from starving, and that their external appearance corresponds less with the dig-
nity of their office than with their penury. Besides hay-making and tending the
cattle, they may be frequently seen leading a train of pack-horses from a fishing-
station to their distant hut. They are all blacksmiths also from necessity, and
the best shoers of horses on the island. The feet of an Iceland horse would be
cut to pieces over the sharp rock and lava, if not well shod. The great resort
of the peasantry is the church ; and should any of the numerous horses have lost
a shoe, or be likely to do so, the priest puts on his apron, lights his Httle char-
coal fire in his smithy (one of which is always attached to every parsonage),
and sets the animal on his legs again. The task of getting the necessary char-
TOE msTOU'^ IlOl sL, 'I1I1N0 ALL
THE ICELANDERS.
107
coal is not the least of his labors, for
whatever the distance may be to the
nearest thicket of dwarf -birch, he must
go thither to burn tlie wood, and to
bring it home when charred across his
horse's back. His hut is scarcely bet-
ter than that of the meanest fisherman ;
a bed, a rickety table, a few chairs, and
a chest or two, are aU his furniture.
This is, as long as h& lives, the condi-
tion of the Icelandic clergyman, and
learning, virtue, and even genius are
but too frequently buried under this
squalid poverty.
But few of my readers have proba-
bly ever heard of the poet Jon Thor-
lakson, but who can withhold the trib-
ute of his admiration from the poor
priest of Backa, who with a fixed in-
come of less than £6 a year, and con-
demned to all the drudgery which I
have described, finished at seventy
years of age a translation of Milton's
"Paradise Lost," having previously
translated Pope's " Essay on Man."
Three of the first books only of the " Paradise Lost " were printed by the
Icelandic Literary Society, when it was dissolved in 1796, and to print the rest
at his own expense was of course impossible. In a few Icelandic verses, Thor-
lakson touchingly alludes to his penury : — " Ever since I came into this world
I have been wedded to Poverty, who has now hugged me to her bosom these
seventy winters, all but two ; and whelher we shall ever be separated here below
is only known to Him who joined us together."
As if Providence had intended to teach the old man that we must hop,e to
the last, he soon after received the unexpected visit of Mr. Henderson, an agent
of the British and Foreign Bible Society, Avho thus relates his interview :
" Like most of his brethren at this season of the year, we found him in the
meadow assisting his people in hay-making. On hearing of our arrival, he
made all the haste home which his age and infirmity would allow, and bidding
us Avelcome to his lowly abode, ushered us into the humble apartment where he
translated my countrymen into Icelandic. The door is not quite four feet in
height, and the room may be about eight feet in length by six in breadth. At
the inner end is the poet's bed, and close to the door, over against a small win-
dow, not exceeding two feet square, is a table where he commits to paper the
efEusions of his Muse. On my telling him that my countrymen would not have
forgiven me, nor could I have forgiven myself, had I passed through this part
of the island without paying him a visit, he replied that the translation of Mil-
THE PASTOR OF THINGVALLA.
108 THE POLAR WORLD.
ton had yielded him many a pleasant hour, and often given him occasion to
think of England."
This f isit was followed by agreeable consequences for the venerable bard.
The Literary Fund soon afterwards sent him a present of £30, a modest sum
according to our ideas, but a mine of wealth in the eyes of the poor Icelandic
priest. His life, however, was now near its close, as it is stated in a short
view " Of the Origin, Progress, and Operations of the Society," dated March
3d, 1821, that "the poet of Iceland is now in his grave; but it is satisfactory
to know that the attention, in this instance, of a foreign and remote society to
his gains and his fortunes was highly gratifying to liis feelings, and contrib-
uted not immaterially to the comfort of his concluding days."
He wrote a letter in very elegant Latin, expressing his heartfelt gratitude
for the kindness and generosity of the Society, so accordant with the character
of the British nation, and accompanied it with a MS. copy of his translation.
The latter was first printed in Iceland in 1828, but his own original poems did
not appear before 1842,
The school Avhere most of the Icelandic clergymen, so poor and yet gener-
ally so respectable in their poverty, are educated, is that of Reykjavik, as few
only enjoy stipends which enable them to study at Copenhagen. There they"
live several years under a milder sky, they become acquainted with the splen-
dor of a large capital, and thus it might be supposed that the idea of returning
to the dreary wastes of their own land must be intolerable. Yet this is their
ardent desire, and, like banished exiles, they long for their beloved Iceland,
where privation and penury await them.
In no Christian country, perhaps with the sole exception of Lapland, are the
clergy so poor as in Iceland, but in none do they exert a more beneficial in-
fluence.
Though the island has but the one public school at Reykjavik, yet perhaps
in no country is elementary education more generally diffused. Every mother
teaches her children to read and write, and a peasant, after providing for the
wants of his family by the labor of his hands, loses no opportunity, in his lei-
sure hours, of inculcating a sound morahty. In these praiseworthy efforts the
par^ts are supported by the pastor.
He who, judging from the sordid condition of an Icelandic hut, might imag-
ine its inhabitants to be no better than savages, would soon cliange his opin-
ion were he introduced on a winter evening into the low, ill-ventilated room
where the family of a peasant or a small landholder is assembled. Vainly
would he seek a single idler in the whole company. The women and girls
spin or knit ; the men and boys are all busy mending their agricultural imple-
ments and household utensils, or else chiselling or cutting with admirable skill
ornaments or snuff-boxes in silver, ivory, or wood. By the dubious light of a
tallow lamp, just making obscurity visible, sits one of the family, who reads
with a loud voice an old " saga" or chronicle, or maybe the newest number of
the " Northurfari," an Iceland literary almanac, published during the last few
years by Mr. Gisle Brinjulfsson. Sometimes poems or whole sagas are repeat-
ed from memory, and there are even itincM-ant story-tellers, who, like the trouba-
THE ICELANDERS. 109
doui's and trouveres of the Middle Ages, wander from one farm to another„and
thus gain a scanty livelihood. In this manner the deeds of the ancient Ice-
landers remain fixed in the memory of their descendants, and Snorre Sturleson,
Siimnnd, Frodi, and Eric Rauda are unforgotten. Nine centuries have elapsed ;
but every Icelander still knows the names of the proud yarls who first peopled
the fiords of the island ; and the exploits of the brave vikings who spread ter-
ror and desolation along all the coasts of Europe still fill the liearts of the
peaceful islanders of our days with a glow of patriotic pride.
Where education is so general, one may naturally expect to find a high de-
gree of intellectual cultivation among the clergy, the public functionaries, and
the wealthier part of the population. Their classical knowledge is one of the
first things that Strike the stranger with astonishment. He sees men whose
appearance too frequently denotes an abject po-verty conversant with the great
authors of antiquity, and keenly alive to their beauties. Travelling to the Gey-
sirs, he is not seldom accosted in Latin by his guide, and stopping at a farm,
his host greets him in the same language.
I have specially named Jon Thorlakson, but Iceland has produced and still
produces many other men who, Avithout the hope of any other reward but that
which proceeds from the pure love of literature, devote their days and nights
to laborious studies, and live with Virgil and Homer under the sunny skies of
Italy and Greece. In the study of the modern languages, the Icelanders are
as far advanced as can be expected from their limited intercourse with the rest
of the world.
The English language, in which they find so many words of their own and
so many borrowed from the Latin, is cultivated by many of the clergy. The
German they find still more easy ; and as all the Scandinavian languages pro-
ceed from the same root, they have no diflficulty in understanding the Danish
and the Norwegian tongues. Of all the modern languages or dialects which
have sprung from the ancient Norse, spoken a thousand years ago all over
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, none has undergone fewer changes than the Ice-
landic. In the sea-ports it is mixed up with many Danish words and phrases,
but in the interior of the island it is still spoken as it was in the times of In-
golfr and Eric the Red, and in the whole island there is no fisherman or day
laborer who does not perfectly understand the oldest writings.
It may easily be imagined that among a people so fond of literature, books
must be in great request. Too poor to be constantly increasing their small col-
lections of modern publications, or of old " sagas " or chronicles, by new acqui-
sitions, one assists the other. When the peasant goes on Sundays to church,
he takes a few volumes with him, ready to lend his treasures to his neighbors,
and, on his part, selects from among those which they have brought for the
same purpose. When he is particularly pleased with a work, he has it copied
at home, and it may be here remarked that the Icelanders are frequently most
excellent calligraphists.
The foundation of a public library at Reykjavik in 1821, at the instigation
of the learned Professor Rafn of Copenhagen, was a great boon to the people,
n is said to contain about 12,000 volumes, which are kept under the roof of the
110 THE POLAR WORLD.
cathedral. Books are freely lent for months, or even for a whole year, to the
inhabitants of remote districts. This liberality is, of course, attended with
some inconvenience, but it has the inestimable advantage of rendering a num-
ber of good works accessible to numerous families too poor to pixrchase them.
Another excellent institution is the New Icelandic Literary Society, founded
in 1816. It has two seats, one in Copenhagen, the other in Reykjavik, and its
chief object is the publication of useful works in the language of the country.
Besides an annual grant of 100 specie dollars (£24) awarded to it by the
Danish Government, its income is confined to the yearly contributions of its
members,* and with this scanty means it has already published many excellent
works.
Though remote from the busy scenes of the world, Iceland" has three news-
papers, the Thyodtholfr and the Islendingur, which appear at Reykjavik, and
the Northri, which is pubUshed at Akreyri, on the borders of the Polar Ocean.
The Islendingur is said to contain many excellent articles, but it would sorely
task the patience of those who are accustomed to the regular enjoyment of the
" Times " at breakfast ; as it sometimes appears but once in three weeks, and then
again, as if to make up for lost time, twice in eight days.
In spite of their ill-ventilated dwellings and the hardships entailed upon
them by the severity of the climate, the Icelanders frequently attain a good old
age. Of the 2019 persons who died in 1858, 25 had passed the age of ninety,
and of these 20 belonged to the fair sex. The mortality among the children is,
however, very considerable ; 993, or nearly one-half of the entire number hav-
ing died before the age of five in the year above-mentioned. Cutaneous affec-
tions are verj"^ common among Icelanders, as may easily be supposed from their
sordid woollen apparel and the uncleanliness of their huts ; and the northern
leprosy, or " liktlira," is constantly seeking out its victims among them. This
dreadful disease, which is also found among the fishermen in Norway, in Green-
land, in the Faeroes, in Lapland, and, in short, wherever the same mode of life
exists, begins with a swelling of the hands and feet. The hair falls off ; the
senses become obtuse. Tumors appear on the arms and legs, and on the face,
which soon loses the semblance of humanity. Severe pains shoot through the
joints, an eruption covers the whole body, and finally changes into open sores,
ending Avith death. He whom the leprosy has once attacked is doomed, for it
mocks all the efforts of medical art. Fortunately the victims of this shocking
complaint are rather objects of pity than of disgust, and as it is not supposed
to be contagious, they are not so cruelly forsaken by their relations as their fel-
low-sufferers in the East. In the hut of the priest of Thingvalla, Marmier saw
a leper busy grinding corn. Some of the poorest and most helpless of these
unfortunate creatures find a refuge in four small hospitals, where they are pro-
vided for at the public expense.
Since a regular steam-boat communication has been opened between Ice-
land, Denmark, and Scotland, the number of tourists desirous of viewing the
* Their number in 1860 was 991. During his voyage to Iceland in 1850 Prince Napoleon was named
honorary president, a distinction he shares with the Bishop of Eej'kjavik. Among the 46 honorary
members I lind the name of Lord Dufferin.
THE ICELANDERS.
Ill
matchless natural wonders of the island has considerably increased. But trav-
elling in the island itself is still attended with considerable difficulties and no
trifling expense, to say nothing of the want of all comforts ; so that most of its
visitors are content with a trip to Thingvalla and the Geysir, which are but a
couple of days' journey from Reykjavik, and very few, like Mr. Holland, make
the entire circuit of the island, or, like Mr. Shepherd, plunge into the terra in-
cognita of its north-western peninsula. The only mode of travelling is on
horseback, as there are no roads, and therefore no carriages in Iceland. The
distances between the places are too great, the rivers are too furious, and the
bogs too extensive to allow of a walking tour being made. Even the tourist
with the most modest pretensions requires at least two riding horses for him-
self, two for his guide, and two packhorses ; and when a larger company travels,
it always forms a cavalcade of from twenty to thirty horses, tied head to tail,
the chief guide mounted on the first and leading the string, the other accelerat-
ing its motions by gesticulation, sundry oaths, and the timely application of
the whip. The way, or the path, lies either over beds of lava, so rugged that
the horses are allowed to pick their way, or over boggy ground, where it is
equally necessary to avoid those places into which the animals might sink up
to their belly, but which, when left to themselves, they ai-e remai'kably skillful
in detecting. With the solitary exception of a few planks thrown across the
Bruera, and a kind of swing bridge, or kldfr, contrived for passing the rapid
Jokulsa, there are no bridges over the rivers, so that the only way to get aci'oss
is to ride through them — a feat which, considering the usual velocity of their
current, is not seldom attended with considerable dangei*, as will be seen by the
following account of the crossing of the Skeidara by Mr. Holland.
BKIDGE RIVEK, ICELAND.
113 THE ;pOLAlt WORLD.
" Our guide," says this intrepid traveller, " urged on his horse through the
stream, and led the way towards the mid-channel. We followed in his wake,
and soon were all stemming the impetuous and swollen torrent. In the course
of our journey we had before this crossed a good many rivers more or less
deep, but all of them had been mere child's play compared to that which we
Avere now fording. The angry water rose high against our horses' sides, at
times almost coming over the tops of their shoulders. The spray from their
broken crests was dashed up into our faces. The stream was so swift that it
was impossible to follow the individual waves as they rushed past us, and it
almost made us dizzy to look down at it. Now, if ever, is the time for firm
hand or rein, sure seat, and steady eye ; not only is the stream so strong, but
the bottom is full of large stones, that the horse can not see through the murky
Avaters ; if he should fall, the torrent will sweep you down to the sea — its white
breakers are plainly visible as they run along the shore at scarcely a mile's dis-
tance, and they lap- the beach as if they waited for their prey. Happily, they
will be disappointed. Swimming would be of no use, but an Icelandic water-
horse seldom makes a blunder or a false" step. Not the least of the risks Ave
ran in crossing the Skeidara Avas from the masses of ice carried down by the
stream from the Jokul, many of them being large enough to knock a horse
over.
" Fortunately Ave found much less ice in the centre and SAviftcst part of the
river, Avhere we Avere able to see and avoid it, than in the side channels. How
the horses were able to stand against such a stream was marvellous ; they
could not do so unless they were constantly in the habit of crossing swift
rivers. The Icelanders Avho live in this part of the island keep horses known
for their qualities in fording difficult rivers, and they never venture to cross a
dangerous stream unless mounted on a tried Avater-horse. The action of the
Icelandic horses Avhen crossing a SAvift river is very peculiar. They lean all
their weight against the stream, so as to resist it as much as possible, and
move onward Avith a peculiar side-step. This motion is not agreeable. It
feels as if your horse Avere marking time Avithout gaining ground, and the prog-
ress made being really very sloAV, the shore from Avhich you started seems to
recede from you, AA^hilst that for Avhich you are making appears as far as ever.
" When we reached the middle of the stream, the roar of the Avaters Avas so
great that we could- scarcely make our voices audible to one another; they
Avere overpoAvered by the crunching sound of the ice, and the bumping of large
stones against the bottom. Up to this point a diagonal line, rather doAvn
stream, had been cautiously foUoAved ; but Avhen Ave came to the middle, we
turned our horses' heads a httle against the stream. As we thus altered our
course, the l^ng fine of baggage-horses appeared to be SAVung round altogether,
as if SAvept off their legs. None of them, howeA-er, broke away, and they con-
tinued their advance Avithout accident, and at length Ave all reached the shore
in safety."
After a day's journey in Iceland, rest, as may well be supposed, is highly
Acceptable. Instead of passing the night in the peasant's hut, the traveller,
Avhen no church is at hand, generally prefers pitching his tent near a running
THE ICELANDERS. II3
stream on a grassy plain ; but sometimes, in consequence of the great distance
from one habitable place to another, he is obliged to encamp in the midst of a
bog where the poor horses find either bad herbs, scarcely fit to satisfy their
hunger, or no food at all.^ After they have been unloaded, their fore legs are
bound together above th'eir hoofs, so as to prevent them straying too far,
while their masters arrange themselves in the tent as comfortably as they can.'
ICELANDIC BOG.
114 THE POLAR WORLD.
COAST OF ICELAND.
CHAPTER VIIL
THE WESTMAN ISLANDS.
The Westmans.— Their extreme Difficulty of Access. — How they became peopled. — HeimaeJ^ —
Kaufstathir and Ofanleyte. — Sheep-hoisting. — Egg-gathering. — Dreadful Mortality among tlie
Children.— The Ginklofi.— Gentleman John.— The Algerine Pirates.— Dreadful Sufferings of tlie
Islanders.
"DISIXG abruptly from the sea to a height of 916 feet, the small Westraan
-■-*' Islands are no less picturesqxte than difficult of access. Many a traveller
while sailing along the south coast of Iceland has admired their towering rock-
walls, but no modern tourist has ever landed there. For so stormy a sea rolls
between them and the mainland, and so violent are the currents, which the
slightest wind brings forth in the narrow channels of the archipelago, that a
landing can be effected only when the weather is perfectly calm. The Dri-
fanda foss, a cascade on the opposite mainland, rushing from the brow of the Eya-
fyalla range in a column of some 800 or 900 feet in height, is a sort of barometer,
which decides whether a boat can put off with a prospect of gaining the West-
mans. In stormy weather the wind eddying among the cliffs converts the fall,
though considerable, into a cloud of spray, which is dissipated in the atmos-
phere, so that no cascade is visible from the beach. In calm Aveather the
column is intact, and if it remains so two days in succession, then the sea is
usually calm enough to allow boats to land, and they venture out. As thelce-
landers, through stormy weather, are frequently cut off from Europe, so the in-
habitants of the Westmans are still more frequently cut off from Iceland, and
it is seldom more than once a year that the mails are landed direct. The few
letters from Denmark (for the correspondence is in all probability not very
active) are landed in Iceland at Reykjavik, and thence forwarded to the islands
by boat, as chance may offer, for, during the whole winter and the greater part
THE WESTMAN ISLANDS.
115
of tTie summer, communication is impossible. It will now be understood why
tourists are so little inclined to visit the Westmans, despite the magnificence
of their coast scenery, for who has the patience to tarry in a miserable hut on
the opposite mainland till the cascade informs him that they are accessible, or
is inclined to run the risk of being detained by a sudden change of the weather
for weeks or even months on these solitary rocks ?
Mr. Ross Browne thus describes the general aspect of the coast of Iceland :
"Nothing could surpass the desolate grandeur of the coast as we approached
the point of Reykjaness. It was of an almost infernal blackness. The Avhole
country seemed uptorn, rifted, shattered, and scattered about in a vast chaos
of ruin. Huge cliffs of lava split down to their bases toppled over the surf.
Rocks of every conceivable shape, scorched and blasted with fire, wrested
from the main and hurled into the sea, battled with the waves, their black
scraggy j^oints piercing the mist like giant hands upthrown to smite or sink in
a fierce death-struggle. T.he wild havoc wrought in the conflict of elements
Avas appalling. Birds screamed over the fearful wreck of matter. The surf
from the inroUing waves broke against the charred and shattered desert of ruin
with a terrific roar. Columns of spray shot up over the blackened fragments
of lava, while in every opening the lashed waters, discolored by the collision,
seethed and surged as in a huge caldron."
WESTMAN ISLES.
Of the Westman Islands, he says : " Towards noon we made the West-
man Isles, a small rocky group some ten miles distant from the main island.
A fishing and trading estabUshment, owned by a company of Danes, is locatetl
116 THE POLAR WORLD.
on one of these islands. The Arcturus touches twice a year to deliver and re-
ceive a mail. On the occasion of our visit, a boat came out with a hardy-look-
ing crew of Danes to receive the mail-bag. It was doubtless a matter of great
rejoicing to them to obtain news from home. I had barely time to make a
rough outline of the islands as we lay off the settlement. The chief interest at-
tached to the Westman group is, that it is supposed to have been visited by
Columbus in 1477, fifteen years prior to his voyage of discovery to the shores
of America."
The puffin, or the screeching sea-mew, seem the only inhabitants for wliich
nature has fitted the Westmans, and yet they have a history which leads us
back to the times when Iceland itself first became known to man.
About 875, a few years after Ingolfr followed his household gods to Reyk-
javik, a Norwegian pirate, perchance one of the associates of that historical
personage, landed on the coast of Ireland, attacked with fire and sword the de-
fenseless population, captured forty or fifty persons, men, women, and children,
and carried them off as slaves. The passage must have been any thing but
pleasant, for it gave the Hibernians such a foretaste of the wretchedness that
awaited them in Iceland, their future abode, that, taking courage from despair,
they rose on their captors, threw them overboard, and went ashore on the first
land they met with.
A day of rare serenity must have witnessed their arrival on the Westmans,
a spot which of all others seemed most unlikely to become their home. Why
they remained there, is a secret of the past ; most likely they had no other al-
ternative, and freedom on a rock was, at all events, better than slavery under a
cruel viking.
Thus these weather-beaten islets were first peopled by men from the west,
whence they derive their name, and it is supposed that the present inhabitants
are the descendants of those children of Erin. No one will be inclined to envy
them the heritage bequeathed to them by their fathers.
The Westmans are fourteen in number ; but of these only one, called Hei-
maey, or Home Island, is inhabited. ^ It is fifteen miles from the coast of Iceland,
and forty-five from Hecla. Though larger than all the others put together, its
entire surface is not more than ten square miles. It is almost surrounded with
high basaltic cliffs, and an otherwise iron-bound shore; its interior is covered
with black ashy-looking cones, bearing undoubted evidence of volcanic action ;
in fact, the harbor, which lies on its north-east side, and is only accessible to
small craft, is formed out of an old crater, into which the sea has worn an en-
trance. The inhabitants are located in two villages ; Kaufstathir, on a little
grassy knoll near the landing-place, and Ofanleyte, on the grassy platform of the
island. Only three of the other islets produce any vegetation or pasturage, and
it is said that on one of these the sheep are hoisted with a rope out of the
boats by an islander, who, at the risk of his neck, has climbed to the top of the
precipitous rock. The others are mere naked cliffs or basaltic pillars, the abode
of innumerable sea-birds, which, when accessible, are a precious resource to the
islanders. For, as may well be supposed, the scanty grass lands afford nourish-
ment but to a few cows and sheep ; and as the unruly waters too often prevent
THE WESTMAN ISLANDS. 117
their fishing-boats from putting to sea, they depend in a great measure for
their subsistence upon the sea-birds, in whose capture they exhibit wonderful
courage and skill. In the egg-season they go to the top of the cliff, and, put-
ting a rope round a man's waist, let him down^ the side of tlie perpendicular
rock, one, two, or three hundred feet ; on arriving at the long, narrow, hori-
zontal shelves, he proceeds to fill a large bag with the brittle treasures depos-
ited by the birds. When his bag is full, he and his eggs are drawn to the to])
by his companions. If the rope breaks, or is cut off by the sharp corners of
the rock, which, however, happens but seldom, nothing can save the luckless
fowler, who is either precipitated into the sea, or dashed to pieces on the
rocks below.
HOME OF SEA-BIRDS.
At a later period in the season they go and get the young birds, and then
they have often desperate battles with the old ones, who will not give up fight-
ing for their offspring till their necks are broken, or their brains knocked out
with a club. Where the cliffs are not accessible from the top, they go round
the bottom in boats, and show a wonderful agility and daring in scaling the
most terrible precipices.
In summer they get the eggs and the fresh meat of the young birds, which
they also salt for the winter. The feathers form their chief article of export,
besides dried and salted codfish, and with these they procure their few nec-
essaries and luxuries, consisting principally of clothing, tobacco and snuff, spir-
its, fish-hooks and lines, and salt. As there is no peat on these islands, nor
dried fish-bones in sufficient quantity, they also make use of the tough old
sea-birds as fuel. For this purpose they split them open, and dry them on the
rocks.
The Westmans form a separate Syssel, or county, and they have a church,
and usually two clergymen. Their church was rebuilt of stone, at the expense
of the Danish Government, in 1774, and is said to be one of the best in Iceland.
118 THE POLAR WORLD.
Unfortunately the two clergymen to whom the spiritual care of the islanders is
confided seem to have but a very indifferent flock, for their neighbors on the
mainland give i-ather a bad character to the inhabitants of Heimaey, describing
them as groat sluggards and d/unkards.
The population, which was formerly more considerable, amounts to about
200 souls, but even this is more than might be expected from the dreadful mor-
tality which reigns among the children. The eggs and the oily flesh of sea-birds
furnish a miserable food for infants, particularly when weaned, as is here cus-
tomary, at a very early age ; but the poor islanders have nothing else to give
them, except some fish, and a very insufiicient quantity of cow's or sheep's milk.
This unhealthy diet, along with the boisterous air, gives i;ise to an incurable in-
fantile disease, called Ginklo^ {tetanus). Its first symptoms are squinting and
rolling of the eyes, the muscles of the back are seized with incipient cramps and
become stiff. After a day or two lock-jaw takes place, the back is bent like a
bow, either backward or forward. The lock-jaw prevents swallowing, and the
cramps become more frequent and prolonged until death closes the scene. The
same disease is said to decimate the children on St. Kilda in consequence of a
similar mode of life.
The only means of pi-eserving the infants of Heimaey from the Ginklofi, is to
send them as soon as possible to the mainland to be reared, and thus a long con-
tinuance of bad weather is a death-warrant to many.
Who would suppose that the Westman Islanders, doubly guarded by their
poverty and almost inaccessible cliffs, could ever have become the prey of free-
booters ? and yet they have been twice attacked and pillaged, and well-nigh ex-
terminated by sea-rovers.
I have already mentioned, in a previous chapter, that before the discovery of
the banks of ISTewfoundland, the English cod-fishers used to resort in great num-
bers to the coasts of Iceland, where some of them — now and then — appeared
also in the more questionable character of corsairs. One of these worthies, who,
like Paul Clifford, or Captain Macheath, so effectually united the suaviter in
modo with the fortiter in re, as to have merited the name of "Gentleman John,"
came to the Westmans in 1614 and set the church on fire, after having previous-
ly removed the little that was worth taking. After this exploit he returned to
Great Britain, but King James I. had him hung, and ordered the church orna-
ments which he had robbed to be restored to the poor islanders. It was, how-
ever, written in the book of fate that they were not to enjoy them long, for in
1627, a vessel of Algerine pirates, after plundering several places on the eastern
and southern coasts of Iceland, fell like a thunderbolt on Heimaey. These mis-
creants, compared with whom John was a " gentleman " indeed, cut down every
man who ventured to oppose them, plundered and burnt the new-built church,
and every hovel of the place, and carried away about 400 prisoners — men,
women, and children. One of the two clergymen of the island, Jon Torsteinson,
was murdered at the time. This learned and pious man had translated the
Psalms of David and the Book of Genesis into Icelandic verse, and is spoken
of as the " martyr " in the history of the land. The other clergyman, Olaf Egil-
THE WESTMAN ISLANDS. 119
son, with his wife and children, and the rest of the prisoners, was sold into
slavery in Algiers. The account of his sufferings and privations, which he
wrote in the Icelandic language, was afterwards translated and published in
Danish.
It was not until 1636, nine years after their capture, that the unfortunate
Heimaeyers were released, and then only by being ransomed by the King of
Denmark. Such was the misery they had endured from their barbarous task-
masters, that only thirty-seven of the whole number survived, and of these but
thirteen lived to return to their native island.
120
THE POLAR WORLD.
II
FISHING IN NOKWAY.
CHAPTER IX.
FROM DEONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.
Mild Climate of the Norwegian Coast. — Its Causes. — The Norwegian Peasant. — Norwegian Constitution. —
Romantic coast Scenerj'.— Drontheim. — Greiffenfeld Holme and Vare.— The Sea-eagle.— The Heirmg-
fisheries.— TheLofoten Islands.— The Cod-fisheries.— "Wretched Condition of the Fishermen.— Tromso-
— Altenfiord.— The Copper Mines. — Hammerfest the most northern Town in the World.— The Nortli
Cape.
OF all the lands situated either within or near the Arctic Circle none enjoys
a more temperate climate than the Norwegian coast. Here, and nowhere
else throughout the northern world, the birch and the fir-tree climb the mount-
ain-slopes to a height of TOO or 800 feet above the level of the sea, as far as the
FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE. 121
70th degree of latitude ; here we still find a flourishing agriculture in the inte-
rior of the Malanger Fjord in 69°. On the opposite side of the Polar Ctcean
extends the inaccessible ice belt of East Greenland; Spitzbergen and Nova
Zembla are not 400 miles distant from Talvig and Haramerfest, and yet these
ports are never blocked with ice, and even in the depth of winter remain con-
stantly open to navigation. What are the causes which in this favored region
banish the usual rigors of the Arctic zone ? How comes it that the winter even
at the North Cape (mean temperature +22°) is much less severe than at Que-
bec (mean temperature +14°), which is situated 25° of latitude nearer to the
equator ?
The high mountain chains Avhich separate Norway from Sweden and Fin-
land, and keep off the eastern gales issuing from the Siberian wastes, while its
coasts lie open to the mild south-westerly winds of the Atlantic, no doubt ac-
count in some, measure for the comparative mildness of its climate; but the
main cause of this phenomenon must no doubt be sought for in the sea. Flow-
ing into the Atlantic Ocean between Florida and Cuba, the warm Gulf Stream
traverses the sea from west to east, and although about the middle of its course
it partly turns to the south, yet a considerable portion of its waters flows on-
ward to the north-east, and streaming through the wide portal between Iceland
and Great Britain, eventually reaches the coasts of Norway. Of course its
warmth diminishes as it advances to the north, but this is imparted to the
winds that sweep over it, and thus it not merely brings the seeds of tropical
plants from Equatorial America to the coasts of Norway, but also the far more
important advantages of a milder temperature.
The soil of Norway is generally rocky and sterile, but the sea amply makes
up for the deficiencies of the land, and with the produce of their fisheries, of
their forests, and their mines, the inhabitants are able to purchase the few for-
eign articles which they require. Though poor, and not seldom obliged to reap
the gifts of nature amidst a thousand hardships and dangers, they envy no other
nation upon earth.
The Norwegian peasant is a free man on the scanty bit of ground which he
has inherited from his fathers, and he has all the virtues of a freeman — an open
character, a mind clear of every falsehood, a hospitable heart for the stranger.
His religious feelings are deep and sincere, and the Bible is to be found in every
hut. He is said to be indolent and phlegmatic, but when necessity urges he sets
vigorously to work, and never ceases till his task is done. His courage and his
patriotism are abundantly proved by a history of a thousand years.
Norway owes her present prosperity chiefly to her liberal constitution. The
press is completely free, and the power of the king extremely limited. All
privileges and hereditary titles are aboUshed. The Parliament, or the " Stor-
thing," which assembles every three years, consists of the " Odelthing," or Up-
per House, and of the " Logthing," or Legislative Assembly. Every new law re-
quires the royal sanction ; but if the Storthing has voted it in three successive
sittings, it is definitively adopted in spite of the royal veto. Public education
is admirably cared for. There is an elementary school in every village, and
where the population is too thinly scattered, the schoolmaster may truly be said
12S
THE POLAR WORLD.
to be abroad, as he wanders from farm to farm, so that the most distant fami-
lies £ave the benefit of his instruction. Every town has its public library, and
in many districts the peasants annually contribute a dollar towards a collection
of books, which, under the care of the priest, is lent out to all subscribers. No
Norwegian is confirmed who does not know how to read, and no Norwegian is
allowed to marry who has not been confirmed. He who attains his twentieth
vear without having been confirmed has to fear the House of Correction. Thus
ignorance is punished as a crime in Norway, an excellent example for far richer
and more powerful nations.
The population of Norway amounts to about 1,350,000, but these are very
unequally distributed ; for while the southern province of Aggerhuus has 513,000
inhabitants on a surface of 35,200 square miles, Nordland has only 59,000 on
16,325, and Finmark, the most northern province of the land, but 38,000 on
29,925, or hardly more than one inhabitant to every square mile. But even this
scanty population is immense Avhen compared with that of Eastern Siberia or
of the Hudson s Bay territories, and entirely owes its existence to the mildness
of the climate and the open sea, which at all seasons affords its produce to the
fisherman.
It is difficult to imagine a more secluded, solitary life than that of the " bond-
ers," or peasant proprietors, along the northern coasts of Norway. The farms,
confined to the smaU patches of more fruitful ground scattered along the fjords,
at the foot or on the sides of the naked mountains, are frequently many miles
distant from their neighbors, and the stormy winter cuts off all communication
KOKWEGIAN FAKM.
FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.
123
iiAMlI^G ALONG THE COAST.
between them. Thus every family, reduced to its own resources, forms as it were
a small commonwealth, which has but little to do with the external world, and
is obliged to rely for its happiness on internal harmony, and a moderate com-
petency. Strangers seldom invade their solitude, for they are far from the or-
dinary tracks of the tourist, and yet a journey from Drontheim to Hammerfest
and the North Cape affords many objects of interest well worthy of a visit.
The only mode of communication is by sea, for the land is everywhere inter-
sected by deep fjords, bounded by one continuous chain of precipitous cliffs and
rocks, varying from one thousand to four thousand feet in height. Formerly,
even the sea-voyage was' attended with considerable difficulties, for the misera-
ble " yoegt," or Scandinavian sloop, the only means of conveyance at the dis-
posal of the traveller, required at the best of times at least a month to perform
the voyage from Drontheim to Hammerfest, and in case of stormy weather, or
contrary wind, had often to wait for weeks in some intermediate port. Now,
however, a steamer leaves the port of Drontheim every week, and conveys the
traveller in five or six days to the remote northern terminus of his journey.
Innumerable ijsles of every size, from a few yards in diameter to as many
miles, stud the line of coast, and between these and the mainland the steamer
ploughs its way. Sometimes the channel is as narrow as the bed of a river, at
others it expands into a mighty lake, and the ever- varying forms of the isles, of
the fjords, and of the mountains, constantly open new and magnificent prospects
to the view. One grand colossal picture follows upon another, but unfortu-
nately few or none show the presence of man. From time to time only some
fishing-boat makes its appearance on the sea, or some wooden farm-house rises
124 THE POLAR WORLD.
on the solitary beach. On advancing farther to the north, the aspect of nature
becomes more and more stern, vegetation diminishes, man is more rarely seen,
and the traveller feels as if he were on the point of entering the gloomy re-
gions of perpetual death.
With the sole exception of Archangel, Drontheim is the most populous and
important town situated in so high a latitude as 63° 24'. Although the cradle
of ancient Scandinavian history, and the residence of a long line of kings, it looks
as if it had been built but yesterday, as its wooden houses have frequently been
destroyed by fire. The choir of its magnificent cathedral, built in the eleventh
century, and once the resort of innumerable pilgrims who came flocking to the
shrine of St. Olave from all Scandinavia, is the only remaining memorial of the
old Tronyem of the Norse annalists and scalds. The modern town has a most
pleasing and agreeable appearance, and the lively colors with which the houses
are painted harmonize with the prosperity of its inhabitants, which is due in a
great measure to its thriving fisheries, and to the rich iron and copper mines in
its neighborhood. The tall chimneys of many smelting-huts, iron foundries,
and other manufactories, bear evidence that modern industry has found its way
to the ancient capital of Norway, In point of picturesque beauty, the bay, on a
peninsula of which the town is situated, does not yield to that of Naples. Up
and down, in every direction, appear the villas of the merchant, and ships of
all burden riding at anchor in the bay, and boats passing and repassing. In a
small island of the bay, fronting the town, is the celebrated castle of Munkholm,
where in former times many a prisoner of state has bewailed the loss of his
liberty. Here, among others, Greiffenfeld, who had risen from obscurity to the
rank of an all-powerful minister, was incarcerated for eighteen years (1680-98.)
At Hildringen, Avhere the potato is still cultivated with success, and barley
ripens every four or five years, begins the province of Nordland, which extends
from 65° to 69° 30' N, lat. The mostly uninhabited isles along the coast are
called " Holme," when rising like steep rocks out of the water, and " Viire "
when tlat and but little elevated above the level of the sea. The latter are the
breeding-places of numberless sea-fowls, whose
eggs yield a welcome harvest to the inhabitants
of the neighboring mainland or of the larger
islands. A well-stocked egg-var is a valuable
addition to a farm, and descends from father
to son, along with the pasture-grounds and the
herds of the paternal land. When the propri-
etor comes to plunder the nests, the birds re-
main quiet, for they know by experience tliat
[< only the superfluous eggs are to be removed.
c But not unfrequently strangers land, and leave
not a single egg behind. Then all the birds,
several thousands at once, rise from their nests
and fill the air with their doleful cries. If such
disasters occur repeatedly they lose courage, and, abandoning the scene of their
misfortunes, retire to another viir. Most of these birds are sea-gulls {Maasfugl,
THE PUFFIN.
FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE. 125
or Maage), their eggs are large, and of a not disagreeable taste. The island of
Lovunnen is the favorite breeding-place of the puffin, which is highly esteemed
on account of its feathers. This silly bird is very easily caught. The fowler
lets down an iron hook, or sends a dog trained on purpose into the narrow
clefts or holes of the rock, where the puffins sit crowded together. The first
bird being pulled out, the next one bites and lays hold of his tail, and thus in
succession, till the whole family, clinging together like a chain, is dragged to
light.
This rocky coast is also much frequented by the sea-eagle, who is very much
feared over the whole province, as he not only carries away Iambs and other
small animals, but even assails and not seldom overpowers the Norwegian oxen.
His mode of attack is so singular that if Von Buch had not heard it so posi-
tively and so circumstantially related in various places, situated at great dis-
tances from each other, he would willingly have doubted its truth. The eagle
darts down into the waves, and then rolls about with his Avet plumage on the
beach until his wings are quite covered with sand. Then he once more rises
into the air and hovers over his intended victim. Swooping down close to him,
he claps his wings, flings the sand into the eyes of the unfortunate brute, and
thoroughly scares it by repeated blows of his pinions. The blinded ox rushes
away to avoid the eagle's attacks, until he is completely exhausted or tumbles
down some precipitoiis cliff.
The sea-coast from Alston to Rodoe, which is crossed by the Arctic Circle,
is particularly rich in herrings, as it furnishes more than one-half of the fish ex-
ported to Bergen.
In respect of the capital invested, the cod-fishery mnst be regarded as the
most important of the Norwegian deep-sea fisheries, but in the number of
hands employed, the herring-fishery takes precedence The number of men
actually engaged in the latter is not less than 60,000, and considerably moi'e
than double that number are directly or indirectly interested in the result of
their operations. The herrings taken in 1866 filled 750,000 barrels, each weigh-
ing 224 lbs., the largest catch ever taken on the Norwegian coast, at least in
recent y^pars. As the movements of the fish are extremely erratic, large shoals
being found one year in a part of the coast where none will be seen the year
following, the fishermen are forced to move from place to place, and formerly
the herrings frequently escaped altogether for want of hands to capture them.
Now this difficulty is in a great measure removed. Telegraph stations are
erected at different places on the coast, from which the movements of the
shoals are carefully watched ; and field telegraphs are kept in readiness to be
joined on to the main line, so as to summon the fishermen from every part of
the country on the first appearance of the fish at any new point. The best
time for the herring-fishery is from January to March, and in 1866, 200,000
barrels, or more than one-fourth of the total catch, were caught between Feb-
ruary 11th and 14th.
At the northern extremity of the province of Nordland, between 68° and
69° N. lat,, are situated the Lofoten Islands, or Vesteraalen Oerne, Avhich are
separated from the mainland by the Vestfjord. This broad arm of the sea is
126 THE POLAR WORLD.
remarkable both for its violent currents and whirlpools, among which the Mael-
strom has attained a world-wide celebrity, and also from its being the most
northerly limit where the oyster has been found. But it is chiefly as the re-
sort of the cod that the Vestfjord is of the highest importance, not only to
Nordland, but to the whole of Norway. No less than 6000 boats from all
parts of the coast, manned probably by more than half of the whole adult male
population of Xordland, annually assemble at Vaage, on the island of Ost Vaa-
goe, and besides these, more than 300 yoegts, or larger fishing-sloops, ivom
Bergen, Christiansand, and Molde, appear upon the scene. The banks of New-
foundland hardly occupy more hands than the fishing-grounds of the Vestf-
jord, which, after the lapse of a thousand years, continue as prolific as ever ;*
nor is there an instance known of its having ever disappointed the fisherman's
hopes. In Harold Haarfagr's times, Vaage was already renowned for its fish-
eries, and several yarls had settled in this northern district, to reap the rich
harvest of the seas. At a later period, under the reign of Saint Olave (1020),
the annual Parliament of Nordland was held at Vaage, and, in 1 120, the benev-
olent King Eystein, brother of Sigurd the Crusader, caused a church to be
erected here in honor of his saintly predecessor, along with a number of huts,
to serve as a shelter to the poor fishermen, a deed which he himself prized
more highly than all his chivalrous brother's warlike exploits in the East, for
" these men," said he, " will still remember in distant times that a King Ey-
stein once lived in Norway."
The reason why the fish never cease visiting this part of the coast is that
the Lofoten Isles inclose, as it were, an inland or mediterranean sea, which only
communicates with the ocean by several naiTow channels between the islands,
and where the fish find the necessary protection against stormy weather. They
assemble on three or four banks well known to the fishermen, seldom arriving
before the middle of January, and rarely later than towards the end of Febru-
ary. They remain in the sheltered fjord no longer than is necessary for spawn-
ing, and in April have all retired to the deeper waters, so that the whole of
the fishing season does not last longer than a couple of months. The fish are
either caught by hooks and lines, or more frequently in large nets about twen-
ty fathoms long and seven or eight feet broad, buoyed with pieces of light
wood, and lested with stones, so as to maintain a vertical position when let
down in the water. The fish, swimming with impetuous speed, darts into the
meshes, which effectually bar his retreat. The nets are always spread in the
evening, and hauled up in the morning ; for as long as it is daylight, the fish
sees and avoids them, even at a depth of sixty or eighty fathoms. A single
haul of the net frequently fills half the boat, and the heavy fish would undoubt-
edly tear the meshes if they were not immediately struck* with iron hooks, and
flung into the boat as soon as they are dragged to the surface.
Claus Niels Sliningen, a merchant of Borgund, first introduced the use of
these nets in the year 1685, an innovation which more than doubled the total
* In 18G6 the total catch of cod was 21,000,000, about 12,000,000 of which were salted (clip fish), and
the remainder dried (stocli-fish) ; each fish making on an average 2 lbs. of clip-fish, and one-fourth less
of stock-fish.
FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE.
127
produce of the fishevies. But (as with all useful inventions) loud complaints
were raised against him in Norway, and as late as 1762 no nets were allowed
at Drontheim, " to prevent the ruin of the poor people who had not the capital
to provide themselves with them."
The life of a fisherman is everywhere full of privations and dangers, but no-
where more so than at the Lofoten Islands. Here, after toiling on the stormy
sea for many hours, he has nothing but the miserable shelter of a damp, filthy,
over-crowded hut, which affords him neither the rest nor the warmth needed
after his fatiguing day's work. Even the iron-framed sons of the North are
frequently unable to resist such continuous hardships, and. bring home with
them the seeds of contagion and death. Malignant fevers have frequently dec-
imated the population of Norway, and their origin may generally be traced to
THE DOVKEFJELD.
the fishing-grounds. " The Arab and the Persian," says Leopold von Buch,
" build caravanseras for the wayfarers through the desert ; the inhabitants of
the Alps have founded ' hospices ' on the summits of the mountain passes ; and
the Norwegian has erected houses of refuge on Dovrefjeld, but none for the
fishermen of Lofoten. Near Rodoe there is a large hospital for the sick of
Nordland ; would it not be as well to build fiouses in Lofoten, so as not to
crowd the hospitals and churchyards ?" This was written at the beginning of
the present century, but the poor fishermen are still as neglected as ever, for a
more recent traveller, Marmier, beheld with pity the wretched huts in which
they spend three winter months far from their families.
In the channel between Hvalo and the mainland lies, in 69" 45' N. lat, the
128 THE POLAR WORLD.
small island of Tromso, where about fifty years since only a few fishermen re-
sided, whose huts have gradually expanded into a thi-iving little town of about
3000 inhabitants, along the shore opposite the mainland. Its staple exports
are dried and salted cod, and train-oil. The livers of the cod are put in open
barrels and placed in the sun, and the melted portion which rises to the sur-
face is skimmed off, being the purest oil. The coarse refuse is boiled in great
iron pots by the side of the sea, and yields the common " train-oil." The mus-
cular matter which remains is collected into barrels and exported as a powerful
manure ; some of it is sent to England.
The town consists mainly of one long straggling street, following the wind-
ings of the shore, and has a picturesque appearance from the harbor. The
houses are all of wood painted with lively colors, and the roofs, mostly covered
with grass, diversified with bright clusters of yellow and white flowers, look
pretty in summer, Tromso has a Latin school, and even boasts of a news-
paper, the IVomso Tldende et Blan for Nordland og Finmarken ("The
Tromso Gazette, a paper for Nordland and Finmark"). This paper is publish-
ed twice a week ; and as only one mail arrives at Tromso every three weeks,
the foreign news is given by instalments, spreading over six successive num-
bers, until a fresh dispatch arrives.
The island of Tromso is beautifully situated, being on all sides environed
by mountains, so that it seems to lie in the midst of a huge salt lake. Its sur-
face rises in gentle slopes to a tolerable elevation, and no other Arctic isle con-
tains richer pasturage, or dwarf plantations of greater luxuriance. Many
meadows are yellow with buttercups and picturesque underwood, and the
heathy hills are covered with shrubs, tearing bright berries of many hues.
The pride of the Tromsoites in their island and town, and their profound at-
tachment to it, are remarkable. No Swiss can be more enthusiastically bound
to his mountains and vales, than they are to their circumscribed domain.
To the north of Tromso lies the broad and deep Altenfjord, whose borders
are studded Avith- numerous dwellings, and where the botanist meets with a
vegetation that may Avell raise his astonishment in so high a latitude. Here
the common birch-tree grows 1450 feet, and the Vaccinium myrtillus 2030
feet above the level of the sea; the dwarf birch {Betula oiana) still vegetates
at a height of 2740 feet, and the Arctic willow is even found as high as 3500
feet, up to the limits of perennial snow.
Alten is moreover celebrated through its copper-mines. A piece of ore hav-
ing been found by a Lap-woman in the year 1825, accidentally fell into the hands
of Mr. Crowe, an English merchant in Hammerfest. This gentleman immediate-
ly took measures for obtaining a privilege from Government for the working of
the mines, and all preliminaries being arranged, set off for London, where he
founded a company, with a capital of £75,000, When Marmier visited the Al-
tenfjord in 1842, more than 1100 workmen were employed in these most north-
erly mining-icorks of the world, and not seldom more than ten English vessels
at a time were busy unloading coals at Kaafjord for the smelting of the ores.
New copper-works had recently been opened on the opposite side of the bay at
Raipass, and since then the establishment has considerably increased.
FROM DRONTHEIM TO THE NORTH CAPE. 129
Ilarnmerfest, the capital of Finraark, situated on the Avest side of the island
of Hvaio, in 70° 39' 15", is the most northern town in the world. Half a centu-
ry since, it had but 44 inhabitants ; at ijresent its population amounts to 1200.
As at Tromso, very many of the houses, forming one long street winding round
the shore, have grass sown on their roofs, which gives the latter the appearance
of little plots of meadows. With us the expression, " he sleeps with grass above
his head," is equivalent to saying " he is in his gi-ave ;" but here it may only
mean that he sleeps beneath the verdant roof of his daily home. Many large
warehouses are built on piles projecting into the water, with landing-quays be-
fore them ; and numerous ranges of open sheds are filled with reindeer skins,
wolf and bear skins, walrus tusks, reindeer horns, train-oil, and dried fish, ready
for exportation. The chief home traific of Hamraerfest consists in barter with
the Laps, who exchange their reindeer skins for brandy, tobacco, hardware, and
cloth. Some enterprising merchants annually fit out vessels for walrus and
seal hunting at Spitzbergen and Bear Island, but the principal trade is with
Archangel, and is carried on entirely in " lodjes," or White Sea ships, with thi'ee
single upright masts, each hoisting a hnge try-sail. These vessels supply Ham-
merfest with Russian rye, meal, candles, etc., and receive stock-fish and train-oil
in exchange. Sometimes, also, an English ship arrives with a supply of coals.
Tlie fishing-grounds off the coast of Finmark, wliose produce forms the sta-
ple article of the merchants of Hammerfest, are scarcely inferior in importance to
those of Lofoten, the number of cod taken here in 1866 amounting to 15,000,000.
A great part of the fish is purchased by the Russians as it comes out of the
watca-. Of the prepared cod, Spain takes the largest quantity, as in 1865 up-
wards of 44,000,000 lbs. of clip-fish (nearly the whole yield for the year) Avas
consigned to that country. Of the dried variety, 10,000,000 lbs. were exported
to the Mediterranean, and upwards of 4,000,000 lbs. more to Italy. Sweden
and Holland come next in order, the supply in each case being over 5,000,000
lbs. ' Great Britain takes scarcely any stock-fish, but l,500,000'lbs. of clip-fish,
and the large export to the West Indies is almost entirely composed of the lat-
ter article.
The winter, though long and dark, has no terrors for the jolly Ilammerfest-
ers, for all the traders and shopkeepers form a united aristocracy, and rarely a
night passes without a feast, a dance, and a drinking-bout. The day when the
sun re-appears is one of general rejoicing ; the first who sees the great luminary
proclaims it with a loud voice, and every body rushes into the street to exchange
congratulations with his neighbors. The island of Ilvalo has a most dreary, ster-
ile aspect, and considerable masses of snow fill the ravines even in summer.
The birch, however, is still found growing 620 feet above the sea, but the fir
has disappeared. >
It may well be supposed that no stranger has ever sojourned in this interest-
ing place, the farthest outpost of civilization towards the Pole, without visiting,
or at least attempting to visit, the far-famed North Cape, situated about sixty
miles from Hammerfest, on the island of Magero, where a few Norwegians live
in earthen huts, and still manage to rear a few heads of cattle. The voyage to
this magnificent headland, which fronts the sea with a steep rock-wall nearly a
130 THE POLAR WORLD.
thousand feet high, is frequently difficult and precarious, nor can it be scaled
witliout considerable fatigue ; but the view from the summit amply rewards
the trouble, and it is no small satisfaction to stand on the brink of the most
northern promontory of Europe.
" It is impossible," says ]Ir. W. Hurton, " adequately to describe the emo-
tion experienced by me as I stepped up to the dizzy verge, I only know that I
devoutly returned thanks to the Almighty for thus permitting me to realize one
darling dream of my boyhood. Despite the wind, which here blew violently
and bitterly cold, I. sat down, and wrapping my cloak around me, long contem-
plated the spectacle of Nature in one of her sublimest aspects. I was truly
alone. Xot a living object was in sight ; beneath my feet was the boundless
expanse of ocean, with a sail or two on its bosom at an immense distance;
above me was the canopy of heaven, flecked with fleecy cloudlets; the sun was
luridly gleaming over a broad belt of blood-red mist ; the only sounds were the
whistling of the wandering winds and the occasional plaintive scream of the
hovering sea-fowl. The only living creature which came near me was a bee,
which hummed merrily by. What did the busy insect seek there? Not a
blade of grass grew, and the only vegetable matter on this point was a cluster
of withered moss at the very edge of the awful precipice, and this I gathered, at
considerable risk, as a memorial of the visit."
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.
131
-^-i^S
MIKXIGHI SUN OFF SPITZBEKGEN.
CHAPTER X.
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYKN.
The west Coast of Spitzbergen.— Ascension of a Mountain by Dr. Scoresby.— His Excursion along tlie
Coast.— A stranded Whale.— Magdalena Bay.— Multitudes of Sea-birds.— Animal Life.— Midnight
Silence.— Glaciers.— A dangerous Neighborhood.— Interior Plateau.— Flora of Spitzbergen. — Its
Similarity with that of the Alps above the Snow-line.— Reindeer.— The hyperborean Ptarmigan.—
Fishes. Coal.— Drift-wood.— Discovery of Spitzbergen by Barentz, Heemsiieik, and Ryp.— Brilliant
Period of the Whale-fishery.— Coffins.— Eight English Sailors winter in Spitzbergen, 1630.— Jlelan-
choly Death of .some Dutch Volunteers.— Russian Hunters.— Their Mode of wintering in Spitzber-
gen.—Scharostin.— Walrus-ships from Hammerfest and Tromso.— Bear or Cherie Island —Bennet.
—Enormous Slaughter of Walruses.— Mildness of itsCliniate.— Mount Misery. —Adventurous Boat-
voyage of some Norwegian Sailors.— Jan Meyen.— Beerenberg.
THE archipelago of Spitzbergen consists of five large islands : West Spitz-
bergen, North-east Land, Stans Foreland, Barentz Land, Prince Charles
Foreland ; and of a vast number of smaller ones, scattered around their coasts.
Its surface is about equal to that of two-thirds of Scotland ; its most southern
point (Y6° 30' N. lat.) lies nearer to the Pole than Melville Island ; and Ross
^ Islet, at its northern extremity (80° 49' N. lat.), looks out upon the unknown
ocean, which perhaps extends without interruption as far as the Straits of
Bering.
Of all the Arctic countries that have hitherto been discovered, Grinnell
133 TIIE POLAR WORLD.
Land and Washington alone lie nearei- to the Pole ; but while these ice-block-
ed regions can only be reached M-ith the utmost difficulty, the western and
north-western coasts of Spitzbergen, exposed to the mild south-westerly winds,
and to the influence of the Gulf Stream, are frequently visited, not only by
walrus-hunters and Arctic explorers, but by amateur travellers and sportsmen.
The eastern coasts are far less accessible, and in parts have never yet been
accurately explored. As far as they are known, they are not so bold and in-
dented as the western and north-western coasts, which, projectins; in mighty
capes or opening a passage to deep fjords, have been gnawed into every varie-
ty of fantastic form by the corroding power of an eternal Avinter, and justify,
by their endless succession of jagged spikes and break-neck acclivities, the
name of Spitzbei-gen, which its first Dutch discoverers gave to this laud of
" serrated peaks."
The mountains on the west coast are very steep, many of them inaccessible,
and most of them dangerous to climb, either from the smooth hard snow with
which they are encrusted even in summer, or from the looseness of the disin-
tegrated stones which cover the parts denuded by the sun, and give way un-
der the slightest pressure of the foot.
More than one daring seaman has paid dearly for his temerity in venturing
to scale these treacherous heights. The supercargo, or owner, of the very first
Dutch whaler that visited Spitzbergen (1612) broke his neck in attempting to
climb a steep mountain in Prince Charles Foreland, and Barentz very nearly
lost several of his men under similar circumstances. Dr. Scoresby, who in the
course of his whaling expeditions touched at Spitzbergen no less than seven-
teen times, was more successful in scaUng a mountain 3000 feet high, near
Mitre Cape, though the approach to the summit was by a ridge so narrow that
he could only advance by sitting astride upon its edge.. But the panorama
which he beheld, after having attained his object, amply repaid him for the
danger and fatigue of clambering for several hours over loose stones, which at
every step rolled with fearful rapidity into the abyss beneath.
" The prospect," says the distinguished naturalist, " was most extensive and
grand. A fine sheltered bay was seen to the east of us ; an arm of the same
on the north-east ; and the sea, whose glassy surface was unrufiled by a breeze,
formed an immense expanse on the west ; the icebergs, rearing their proud crests
almost to the tops of the mountains between which they were lodged, and de-'
fying the power of the solar beams, were scattered in various directions about
the sea-coast and in the adjoining bays. Beds of snow and ice, filling extensive
hollows and giving an enamelled coat to adjoining valleys, one of which, com-
mencing at the foot of the mountain where we stood, extended in a continued
line towards the north as far as the eye could reach ; mountain rising above
mountain, until by distance they dwindled into insignificance ; the whole con-
trasted by a cloudless canopy of deepest azure, and enlightened by the rays of
a blazing sun, and the effect aided by a feeling of danger — seated, as we were, .
on the pinnacle of a rock,'^lmost surrounded by tremendous precipices ; all
united to constitute a picture singiilarly sublime.
" Our descent we found really a very hazardous, and in some instances a
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN IklEYEN. 133
painful undertaking. Every movement was a work of deliberation. Having,
by much care and with some anxiety, made good our descent to the top of the
secondary hills, we took our way down one of the steepest banks, and slid for-
ward with great facility in a sitting posture. Towards the foot of the hill an
expanse of snow stretched across the line of descent. This being loose and
soft, we entered upon it without fear, but on reaching the middle of it, we
came to a surface of solid ice, perhaps a hundred yards across, over which we
launched with astonishing velocity, but happily escaped without injury. The
men, whom we left below, viewed this latter movement with astonishment and
fear."
After this perilous descent, Scoresby continued his excursion on the flat land
next the sea, where he found scattered here and there many skulls and other
bones of sea-horses, whales, narwhals, foxes, and seals. Two Russian lodges,
formed of logs of pine, with a third in ruins, were also seen ; the former, from
a quantity of fresh chips about them and other appearances, gave evidence of
having been recently inhabited. These huts were built upon a ridge of shingle
adjoining the sea. Among the boulders heaped upon the shore, numerous sea-
birds had built their nests or laid their eggs, which they defended Avith loud
cries and determined courage against the attacks of gulls. The only insect he
perceived was a small green fly, but the water along the coast was filled with
medusse and shrimps. The strong north-west winds had covered the strand
with large heaps of Fucus vesiculosus and Lmninaria so.ccharina, the same
which the storms also cast out upon our shores.
The view of this high northern life was extremely interesting, but Dr.
Scoresby was still further rewarded by the discovery of a dead whale, found
stranded on the beach, which, though much swollen and not a little putrid,
proved a prize worth at least £400. By a harpoon found in its body, it appear-
ed to have been struck by some of the fishers on the Elbe, and having escaped
from them, it had probably stranded itself on the spot Avhere it was found.
When the first incision was made, the oil gushed forth like a fountain. It was
a slow and laborious work to transport the blubber to the ship, which on ac-
count of the dangerous nature of the coast was obliged to remain two miles
off at sea. After five boat-loads had safely been brought on board, the wind
suddenly changed, so that the ship was driven far out to sea, and the boat
reached her with great difiiculty.
Of the numerous fjords of Spitzbergen, once the busy resort of Avhole fleets
of whalers, and now but rarely visited by man, none has been more accurately
described by modern Arctic voyagers than the magnificent harbor of Magda-
lena Bay. Here the Dorothea and the Trent anchored in 1818, on their way
to the North Pole ; here also the French naturalists, who had been sent out in
the corvette La Recherche (1835-36) to exj^lore the high northern latitudes,
sojourned for several weeks.
The mimber of the sea-birds is truly astonishing. On the ledges of a high
rock at the head of the bay Beechey saw the little auks [Arctica alle) extend
in an uninterrupted line full three miles in length, and so closely congregated
that about thirty fell at a single shot. He estimated their numbers at about
134
THE POLAR AVOKLD.
4,000,000. When they took flight they darkened the tiir ; and at the distance
of four miles their chorus could distinctly be heard.
On a tine summer's day, the bellowing of the walruses and the hoarse bark
of the seals are mingled with the shrill notes of the auks, divers, and gulls.
Although all these tones produce a by no means harmonious concert, yet they
have a pleasing effect, as denoting the happy feelings of so many creatures.
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN ME YEN. 135
When the sun verges to the pole, every animal becomes mute, and a silence
broken only by the bursting of a glacier reigns over the whole bay — a remark-
able contrast to the tropical regions, where Nature enjoys her repose during
the, noonday heat, and it is only after sunset that life awakens in the forest
and the field.
Four glaciers reach down this noble inlet : one, called the Wagon Way, is
7000 feet across at its terminal cliff, which is 300 feet high, presenting a mag-
nificent wall of ice. But the whole scene is constructed on so colossal a scale
that it is only on a near approach that the glaciers of Magdaleua Bay appear
in all their imposing grandeur. In clear weather the joint effect of the ice un-
der the water, and the reflection of the glacier-wall above, causes a remarkable
optical delusion. The water assumes a milk-white color, the seals appear to
gambol in a thick cream-like liquid, and the error only becomes apparent when,
on leaning over the side of the boat, the spectator looks down into the trans-
parent depth below.
It is extremely dangerous to approach these cliffs of ice, as every now and
then large blocks detach themselves from the' mass, and frequently even a con-
cussion of the air is enough to make them fall.
During the busy period of Spitzbergen history, when its bay used to be fre-
quented by whalers who anchored under the glacier-walls, these ice-avalanches
often had disastrous consequences. Thus, in the year 1619, an EngUsh ship
was driven by a sform into Bell Sound. While it was passing under a preci-
pice ol ice, a prodigious mass came thundering down upon it, broke the masts,
and threw the ship so violently upon one side that the captain and part of the
crew were swept into the sea. The captain escaped unhurt, but two sailors
were killed and several others wounded.
One day a gun was fired from a boat of the Trent when about half a mile
from one of the glaciers of Magdaleua Bay. Immediately after the report of
the musket, a noise i-esembling thunder was heard in the direction of the ice-
stream, and in a few seconds more an enormous mass detached itself from its
front, and fell into the sea. The men in the boat, supposing themselves to be
beyond the reach of its influence, were tranquilly contemplating the magnificent
sight, when suddenly a large wave caine sweeping over the bay, and cast their
little shallop to a distance of ninety-six feet upon the beach.
Another time, when Franklin and Beechey had approached one of these ice-
walls, a huge fragment suddenly slid from its side, and fell with a crash into
the sea. At first the detached mass entirely disappeared under the waters, cast-
ing up clouds of spray, but soon after it shot up again at least 100 feet above
the surface, and then kept rocking several minutes to and fro. When at length
the tumult subsided, the block was found to measure no less than 1500 feet in
circumference ; it projected 60 feet above the water, and its Aveiglit was calcu-
lated at more than 400,000 tons.
Besides the glaciers of Magdaleua Bay, Spitzbergen has many others that
protrude their crystal walls down to the water's edge ; and yet but few ice-
bergs, and the largest not to be compared with the productions o:^Bafa»''s Bay,
are drifted from the shores of Spitzbergen into the open sea. The reason is
136 THE POLAR WORLD.
that the glaciers usually tevminate where the sea is shallow, so that no very
large mass if dislodged can float away, and they are at the same time so fre-
quently dismembered by heavy swells that they can not attain any great size.
The interior of Spitzbei-gen has never been explored. According to -the
Swedish naturaUsts,* who climbed many of the. highest mountains in various
parts of the coast, all the central regions of the archipelago form a level ice-
plateau, interrupted only here and there by denuded rocks, projecting hke isl-
ands from the crystal sea in which they are imbedded. The height of this pla-
teau above the level of the ocean is in general from 1500 to 2000 feet, and from its
frozen solitudes descend the various glaciers above described. During the sum-
mer months, the radiation of the sun at Spitzbergen is always very intense, the
thermometer in some sheltered situations not seldom rising at noon to 62°, 67°,
or even 73°. Even at midnight, at the very peak of the high mountain ascend-
ed by Scoresby, the power of the sun produced a temperature several degrees
above the freezing-point, and occasioned the discharge of streams of water from
the snow-capped summit. Hence, though even in the three warmest months the
temperature of Spitzbergen does not average more that 34|°, yet in the more
southern aspects, and particularly where the warmth of the sun is absorbed and
radiated by black rock-walls, the mountains are not seldom bared at an eleva-
tion nearly equal to that of the snow-line of Norway, and various Alpine plants
and grasses frequently flourish, not only in sheltered situatiojis at the foot of
the hills, but even to a considerable height, wherever the disintegrated rocks
lodge and form a tolerably good soil.
The Flora of Spitzbergen consists of about ninety-three species of flowering
or phenogamous plants, which generally grow in isolated tufts or patches ; but
the mosses which carpet' the moist lowlands, and the still more hardy lichens,
which invest the rocks Avith their thin crusts or scurfs as far as the last limits
of vegetation, are much more numerous. Some of the plants 'of Spitzbergeu
are also found on the Alps beyond the snow-line, at elevations of from 9000 to
10,000 feet above the level of the sea. According to Mr. IVIartins, nothing can
give a better idea of Spitzbergen than the vast circus of i^'eve, in the centre of
which rises the triangular rock known to the visitors of Chamouny as the Jardin
or the Courtil. Let the tourist, placed "on this spot at a time when the sun
rises but httle above the horizon, or better still, when wreaths of mist hang
over the neighboring mountains, fancy the sea bathing the foot of the amphi-
theatre of which he occupies the centre, and he has a complete Spitzbergen
prospect before him. Supposinghim to be a botanist, the sight of the Ba7iuncu-
lus glacialis, Gerastium a^nnum, Arenaria hiflora, and Eo-^geron unifloriis
will still further incrense the illusion.
The only esculent plant of Spitzbergen is the Cochlearia fenestrata, which
iiere loses its acrid principles, and can be eaten as a salad. The grasses which
* Within the last few years, no less than three scientific expeditions have been sent out to Spitz-
bergen at the expense of the Swedish Government. During the summer of 1858, Messrs. Otto Torell,
Guennerstedt, and Nordenskjold visited the western parts of the archipelago. In 1801 the whole coast,
from Tee Sound to Dove Bay in North-east Land was accurately investigated by Messrs. Torell, Malm-
gren, Chy'denius, etc., and in 1801 :Messrs. Nordenskjold, Duner, and Malmt^ren visited the southern
shores and Wjde Jan's Water. A fourth expedition has just left the port of Gothenburg (June, 18G«)
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN ]IEYEN. 137
Kcilh.iu found growing near some Russian huts in Stans Foreland are during
the summer a precious resource for the reindeer, which, though extremely shy,
make their appearance from time to time in every part of the land from the
Seven Islands to South Cape, and are more abundant than could have been ex-
pected. The Polar bears are probably their only native enemies on these isl-
ands, and their fleetness furnishes them with ample means of escape from a
pursuer so clumsy on land. Lord Mulgrave's crew killed fifty deer on Vogel-
sang, a noted hunting-place, and on Sir Edward Parry's polar expedition about
seventy deer were shot in Treurenberg Bay by inexperienced deer-stalkers, and
without the aid of dogs. During the winter these large herbivora Uve on the
Icelandic moss which they scent under the snow, but it may well be asked where
they find shelter in a naked wilderness without a single tree. In May and
June they are so thin as scarcely to be eatable, but in July they begin to get
fat, and then their flesh would everywhere be reckoned a delicacy.
Besides the reindeer, the only land-quadrupeds of Spitzbergen are the Polar
bear, the Arctic fox, and a small field-mouse, which in summer has a mottled,
and in winter a white fur.
Of the birds, the hyperborean ptarmigan {Lagopus hyperhorecC)^ Avhich
easily procures its food under the snow, undoubtedly winters in Spitzbergen,
and probably also the lesser red-pole, which perhaps finds grass seeds enough
for its subsistence during the long polar nights, while the snow-bunting {Plec-
trophanes nivalis), and the tAventy species of water-fowl and waders that fre-
quent the shoi'es of the high northern archipelago during the summer, all mi-
grate southward when the long summer's day verges to its end.
Until very lately the Spitzbergen waters were supposed to be poor in fishes,
though the numerous finbacks, which towards the end of summer frequent the
southern and south-western coasts, and, unlike the large smooth-back whales,
chiefly live on herrings, as well as the troops of salmon-loving white dolphin
seen about the estuaries of the rivers, snfticiently proved the contrary, not to
mention the herds of seals, and the hosts of ichthyophagous sea-birds that breed
on every rocky ledge of the archipelago. Phipps and Scoresby mention only
three or four species of fishes occurring in the seas of Spitzbergen, while the
Swedish naturalist Malmgren, the first who seems to have paid real attention to
this interesting branch of zoology, collected no less than twenty-three species in
1861 and 1864. The northern shark {Scymnus microcejyhalns) is so abundant
that of late its fishery has proved highly remunerative. The first ship which
was fitted out for this purpose in 1863 by Hilbert Pettersen, of Tromso, returned
from Bell and Ice Sounds with a full cargo of sharks' fivers, and in 1865 the
same enterprising merchant sent out no less than five shark-ships to Spitzbergen.
The cod, the common herring, the shell-fish, the hahbut have likewise been
caught in the waters of the archipelago, and there is every reason to believe
that their fishery, which has hitherto been entirely neglected, might be pursued
with great success.
The mineral riches of Spitzbergen are, of course, but little known. Coal of
an excellent quality, which might easily be worked, as it nearly crops out on
the surface at a short distance from the sea, has, however, been discovered
138 THE POLAR WORLD.
lately by Mv. Blorastrand in King's Bay, and similar strata exist in varions parts
of Bell Sonnd and Ice Sound. Large quantities of drift-wood, probably from
the large Siberian rivers, are deposited by the currents, particularly on the
north coasts of North-east Land, and on the southern coasts of Stans Fore-
land. In English Bay Lord Dufferin saw innumerable logs of unhewn tim-
ber, mingled Avith which lay pieces of broken spars, an oar, a boat's flagstaff,
and a few shattered fragments of some long-lost vessel's planking.
Most probably the Norwegians had their attention directed at a very early
period to the existence of a land lying to the north of Finmarken by the troops
of niigratory birds which they saw flying northward in spring, and by tiie
casual visits of sea-bears, which the drift-ice carried to the south. There can
be no doubt that they were the first discoverers of Spitzbergen, but their his-
tory contains no positive records of the fact, and it Avas not before the sixteenth
century that Europe first became acquainted with that desolate archipelago.
Sir Hugh Willoughby may possibly have seen it in 1559, but it is certain that
on June 19, 1596, Barentz, Heemsk-erke,-and Ryp, who had sailed in two ships
from Amsterdam to discover the north-eastern passage to India, landed on its
western coast, and gave it the name it bears to the present day. In the year
1607 it was visited by the unfortunate Henry Hudson, and four years later the
first English whalers were fitted out by the Russia Company in London to fish
in the bays of Spitzbergen, or East Greenland, as it w^as at that time called,
being supposed to be the eastern prolongation of that vast island. Here our
countrymen met with Dutchinen, Norwegians, and Biscayans from Bayonne
and the ports of Northern Spain, and commercial rivalry soon led to the usual
quarrels. In the year 1613 James I. granted the Russia C/ompany a patent,
giving them the exclusive right to fish in the Spitzbergen Avaters, and seven
ships of war were sent out to enforce their pretensions. The Dutch, the Nor-
Avegians, and the Biscayans were driven away ; a cross Avith the name of the
King of England w^as erected on the shore, and Spitzbergen received the name
of " King James his Newland," This triumph, hoAvever, Avas but of short du-
I'ation, and after a struggle, in Avhich none of the combatants gained any decis-
ive advantage, all parties came at last to an amicable agreement. The English
received for their share the best stations on the south-Avestern coast, along Avith
English Bay and Magdalena Bay. The Dutch Avere obliged to retreat to the,
north, and chose Amsterdam Island, Avith Smeerenberg Bay, as the seat of their
operations. The Danes or NorAvegians established their head-quarters on
Dane's Island ; the Plamburgers, who also came in for their share, in Ham-
burg Bay ; and the French or Biscayans on the north coast, in Red Bay. At
present a right or smooth-backed whale rarely shoAvs itself in the Spitzbergen
Avaters, but at that time it was so abundant that frequently no less than forty
whalers used to anchor in a single bay, and send out their boats to kill these
cetaceans, who came there for the purpose of casting their young in the shel-
tered friths and channels. The fat of the captured Avhales Avas immediately
boiled in large kettles on the shoi-e, and the bays of Spitzbergen presented a
most animated spectacle during the summer season.
Numerous cofiins — an underground burial being impossible in this frost-
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.
139
BUltl .L IN UPITZBLIil.EN
hardened earth — still bear witness to those busy times, and also to tlie great
mortality among the fishermen, caused doubtless by their intemperate habits.
They are particularly abundant at Smeerenberg, where Admiral Beechey saw
upwards of one thousand of them ; boards with English inscriptions were
erected over a few, but the greater number were Dutch, and had been deposited
in the eighteenth century. Some coffins having been opened, the corpses were
found in a state of perfect preservation, and even the woollen caps and stock-
ings of the mariners, who might perhaps have rested for more than a century
on this cold earth, were still apparently as new as if they had been but recently
put on.
In the seventeenth century the English and the Dutch made several at-
tempts to establish permanent settlements in Spitzbergen. The Russia Com-
pany tried to engage volunteers by the promise of a liberal pay, and as none
came forward, a free pardon was offered to criminals who would undertake to
winter in Bell Sound. A few wretches, tired of confinement, accepted the pro-
posal, but when the fleet was about to depart, and they saw the gloomy hills,
and felt the howling north-eastern gales, their hearts failed them, and they en-
treated the captain who had charge of them to take them back to London and
let them be hanged. Their request to be taken back was complied with, but
the company generously interceded for them, and obtained their pardon.
Some time after, in the year 1630, an. English whaler landed eight men m
Bell Sound to hunt reindeer. They remained on shore during the night, but
meanwhile a storm had arisen, and on the following morning their ship had
140
THE POLAR WORLD.
vanished out of sight. It was towards the end of August, and they had no hope
of rescue at this advanced period of the year.
Their despair may be imagined, but they soon recovered their courage, and
wisely determmed to make preparations for the impending winter, instead of
losing time in useless lamentations. Their first care was to lay in a stock of
food and in a short time they had killed nineteen reindeer and four bears.
Fortunately they found in Bell Sovmd the necessary materials for the erection
of a hut. A large shed fifty feet long and thirty-eight broad had been built
as a workshop for the men of the Russia Company, and they very judiciously
constructed their small hut of stones and thick planks within this inclosed
space. They thus gained a better protection against the icy wind and room
for exercise during stormy weather, one of the best preservatives against the
scurvy. They made their beds and winter dresses of the skins of the animals
they had killed, sewing them together with needles made of bone splinters, and
using disentangled rope-ends as- thread.
Their hut was ready by September 1 2, and to preserve their supply of meat
as "long as possible, they lived four days of the week on the offal of whales' fat
which lay scattered, about in great plenty. From October 26 to February 15
they saw no sun, and from the 13th to the 31st of December no twilight. The
new year began with excessive cold : every piece of metal they touched stuck
to their finders like glue, and their skin became blistered when exposed to the
air. The re-appearance of the sun was as a resurrection from death. To in-
crease their joy, they saw two bears on the ice, one of Avhich they killed, but
they found, what has since been frequently experienced by others, that the
SPITZBERGEN— BEx^R ISLAND— JAN IHEYEN. 141
liver of the animal has poisonous qualities, ov is at least very unwholesome, for,
after eating it, they were all attacked with a kind of erujjtive fever, and their
skin peeled off. Towards the middle of March their provisions were well-nigh
exhausted, but the Polar bears appearing more frequently, replenished their
stock. Soon also the migratory birds arrived from the south, the foxes crept
out of their burrows, and many were caught in traps. On June 5 the ice be-
gan to break up, and on the following morning one-half of the bay was open.
A gale forced them to seek the shelter of their hut. There, seated round the
fire, they spoke of their approaching delivery, when suddenly a loud halloo
was heard. They immediately rushed out into the open air, and hardly be-
lieved their eyesight, for they were greeted by their comrades of the previ-
ous summer, and saw their own well-known ship at anchor in the bay. Thus
were these brave-hearted men rescued after a ten months' exile in the lati-
tude of 11°.
The possibility of wintering in Spitzbergen having thus been proved, some
volunteers belonging to the Dutch fleet were induced by certain emoluments
to attempt the same enterprise on Amsterdam Island ; but, less fortunate than
their predecessors, they all fell victims to the scurvy. A diary which they
left behind recorded the touching history of their sufferings. "Four of us,"
these were its last words, " are still alive, stretched out flat upon the floor, and
might still be able to eat if one of us had but the strength to rise and fetch
some food and fuel, but we are all so weak, and every movement is so painful,
that we are incapable of stirring. We constantly pray to God soon to release
us from our sufferings, and truly we can not live much longer without food
and warmth. None of us is able to help the others, and each must bear his
burden as well as he can."
Since that time both the English and the Dutch have given up the idea of
forming permanent settlements in Spitzbergen, but scarcely a year passes that
some Russians and Norwegians do not winter in that high northern land. As
far back as the seventeenth centuiy, the former used to send out their clumsy
but strongly-built "lodjes " of from 60 to 160 tons from the ports of Archan-
gel, Mesen, Onega, Kola, and other places bordering the White Sea, to chase
the various animals of S23itzbergen, the reindeer, the seal, the beluga, but chief-
ly the walrus, the most valuable of all. These vessels leave home in July, or
as soon as the navigation of the White Sea opens, and as the shortness of the
season hardly allows them to return in the same year, they pass the winter in'
some sheltered bay. Their first care on landing is to erect a large cross on the
shore, a ceremony they repeat on leaving, and such is their religious faith that
under the protection of that holy symbol they mock all the terrors of the Arc-
tic winter. Near the place where their vessels are laid up, they build a large
hut from twenty to twenty-five feet square, which is used as a station and mag-
azine ; but the huts used by the men who go in quest of skins, and which are
erected at distances of from ten to fifty versts along the shore, are only seven or
eight feet square. The smaller huts are usually occiipied by two or three men,
who take care to provide themselves from the store-house with the necessary
provisions for the winter. Scoresby visited several of these huts, some con-
142 THE POLAR WORLD.
structed of logs, others of deal two inches in thickness. They are of the same
kind as those used by the peasants in Russia, and, being taken out in pieces,
are erected with but little trouble in the most convenient situation. The stoves
are built with bricks, or with clay found in the country. During the stay of
the hunters, they employ themselves in kilUng seals or walruses in the watei-,
and bears, foxes, deer, or whatever else they meet with on land. Each ship is
furnished with provisions for eighteen months, consisting of rye flour for bread,
oatmeal, barley-meal, peas, salt beef, salt cod, and salt halibut, together with
curdled milk, honey, and Unseed oil ; besides which, they enjoy the flesh of the
animals which they kill. Their drink consists chiefly of quas, a national bev-
erage made from rye flour and water ; malt or spirituous hquors being entirely
forbidden, to prevent drunkenness, as, when they were allowed it, they drank
so immoderately that their work was often altogether neglected. Their fuel
for the most part is brought with them from Prussia, and drift-wood is used
for the same purpose.
The hunters, seldom travelling far in winter, make their short excursions on
foot on snow-skates, and draw their food after them on hand-sledges. Not sel-
dom they are overtaken by terrific snowstorms, which force them to throw
themselves flat upon the ground, and sometimes even cost them their lives.
Their best preservation against the scurvj^ is bodily exercise ; they also use the
Cochleariafenestrata,yi\G\ grows wild in the country, either eating it without
any preparation, or drinking the liquor prepared from it by infusion in water.
Yet, in spite of all their precautions, they often fall a prey to this terrible
scoiirge. In the year 1771, Mr. Steward, of Whitby, landed in King's Bay to
gather drift-wood, and found a Russian hut. After having vainly called for ad-
mittance, they opened it, and found a: corpse stretched out on the ground, its
face covered with green mould. Most likely the unfortunate man, having bur-
ied all his comrades, had, as the last survivor, found no one to perform the same
kind ofiice for himself. Generally the Russian hunters, after spending the win-
ter in Spitzbergen, return home in the following August or September; but
their stop is often prolonged during several years ; and Scharostin, a venerable
Russian, who died in 1826 in Ice Sound, is deservedly remarkable for having
spent no less than thirty-two winters of his long life in that high northern land,
where he once remained during fifteen consecutive years. Surely this man
ought to have been crowned king of Spitzbergen—
On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds,
With a diadem of snow !
Every year, at the beginning of summer, about a dozen vessels leave the ports
of Hammerfest and Tromso for Spitzbei'gen. Formerly it was a very common
thing for them to procure three cargoes of walrus and seals in a season, and less
than^two full cargoes was considered very bad luck indeed ; now, however, it is
a rare thing to get more than one cargo in a season, and many vessels return
home after four months' absence only half full. Yet, in spite of this diminution,
the numbers of walruses still existing in that country are very considerable, par-
ticularlv on the northern banks and skerries, which are only accessible in open
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN MEYEN.
143
seasons, or perhaps once in every three or four summers, when the persecuted
animals get a little time to breed and replenish their numbers.
iil
m
m
ill
li
About midway between Hamraerfest and Spitzbergen lies Bear Island, orig-
inally discovered by Barentz on June 9, 1596. Seven years later, Stephen Ben-
144 THE POLAR WORLD.
net, a shipmaster in the service of the Muscovy Company, while on a voyage of
discovery in a north-easterly direction, likewise saw Bear Island on August 16.
Ignorant of its previous discovery by Barentz, he called it Cherie Island, after
Sir Francis Cherie, a member of the company, and to this day both names are
used.
Bennct found some walruses on its desert shores, and returned in the fol-
lowing year with a vessel fitted out by a merchant of the name of Welden, to wage
war with these sea-monsters. His first operations were not very successful.
Of a herd of at least a thousand walruses, he killed no more than fifteen, and a
later attack upon an equally enormous trooji raised the entire number of his
victims to no more than fifty. Their tusks alone w^ere brought away, and along
with some loose ones collected on the beach formed the chief produce of the ex-
pedition. At first the unwieldy creatures were fired at, but as the bullets made
no great impression on their thick hides, grapeshot was now discharged into
their eyes, and the blinded animals were finally killed with axes.
In the following year "VYelden himself proceeded to Bear Island, and the art
of walrus-killing gradually improving by practice, this second expedition
proved far more profitable than the first. Care had also been taken to provide
large kettles and the necessary fuel to boil their fat on the spot, so that besides
the tusks a quantity of oil was gained. In 1606 Bcnnet again appeared on the
field of action, and the dexterity of the walrus-hunters had now become so great
that in less than six hours they killed more than VOO, which yielded twenty-two
tons of oil. During the following voyage, Welden, who seems to have acted in
partnership with Bennet, each taking his turn, killed no less than 1000 walruses
in seven hours. Thus Bear Island proved a mine of wealth to these enterpris-
ing men, and though the walruses are not now so abundant as in the good old
times, yet they are still sufficiently numerous to atti-act the attention of specula-
tors. Every year several expeditions proceed to its shores from the Russian
and Norwegian ports, and generally some men pass the winter in huts erected
on its northern and south-eastern coasts.
Considering its high northern latitude of 15°, the climate of Bear Island is un-
commonly mild. According to the reports of some Norwegian walrus-hunters,
who remained there from 1824 to 1826, the cold was so moderate during the
first winter that, until the middle of November, the snow which fell in the night
melted during the daytime. It rained at Christmas, and seventy walruses were
killed during Christmas week by the light of the moon and that of the Aurora.
Even in February the weather was so mild that the men were able to work in
the open air under the same latitude as Melville Island, where mercury is a solid
body during five months of the year. The cold did not become intense be-
fore March, and attained its maximum in April, when the sea froze fast round
the island, and the white bears appeared which had been absent during the
whole winter. The second winter was more severe than the first, but even then
the sea remained open until the middle of November— evidently in consequence
of the prevailing south-westerly winds. The greater part of Bear Island is a
desolate plateau raised about 100 or 200 feet above the sea. Along its western
shores rises a group of three mountains, supposed to be about 200 feet high,
SPITZBERGEN— BEAR ISLAND— JAN :MEYEN. 145
and towards the south it terminates in a solitary Jiill to which the first discov-
erers gave the appropriate name of Mount Misery. At the northern foot of
this terrace-shaped elevation the plateau is considerably depressed, and forms
a kind of oasis, where grass {Poa 2yratensis), enlivened with violet cardamines
and white polygonums and saxifragas, grows to half a yard in height. The
general character of the small island is, however, a monotony of stone and mo-
rass, with here and there a patch of snow, while the coasts have been worn by
the action of the waves into a variety of fantastic shapes, bordered in some parts
by a flat narrow strand, the favorite resort of the walrus, and in others afEord-
ing convenient breeding-places to hosts of sea-birds.. In Coal Bay, four parallel
seams of coal, about equidistant from each other, are visible on the vertical rock-
walls, but they are too thin to be of any practical use.
Bear Island has no harbors,.and is consequently a rather dangerous place to
visit. During the first expedition sent out from Haramerfest, it happened that
some of the men who had been landed were abandoned by their ship, Avhich was
to have cruised along the coast while they were hunting on shore. But the
current, the wind, and a dense fog so confused the ignorant captain that, leaving
them to their fate, he at once returned to Hammerfest. When the men became
aware of their dreadful situation, they determined tQ leave the island in their
boat, and taking with them a quantity of young Avali as flesh, they luckily reach-
ed Xorthkyn after a voyage of eight days. It seems almost incredible that
these same people immediately after revisited Bear Island in the same ship, and
A GLIMrSE OF JAN METEN'S ISLAND.
10
146 THE POLAR WORLD.
were again obliged to return to Xorway in the same boat. The ship had an-
chored iu the open bay of .North Haven, and having taken in its cargo, consist-
ing of 180 wah-uses, M'hich had all been killed in a few days, was about to leave,
when a storm arose, which cast her ashore and broke her to pieces. The Rus-
sians had built some huts in the neighborhood, and the provisions might probably
have been saved, but rather than winter in the island the crew resolved to ven-
ture home again in the boat. This was so small that one-half of them were
obliged to lie down on the bottom Avhile the others rowed ; the autumn was al-
ready far advanced, and they encountered so savage a storm that an English
ship they fell in with at the North Cape vainly endeavored to take them on
board. After a ten days' voyage, however, they safely arrived at Magero, thiis
proving the truth of the old saying that " Fortune favors the bold." The dis-
tance from Bear Island to North Cape is about sixty nautical miles.
In a straight line between Spitzbergen and Iceland lies Jan Meyen, which,
exposed to the cold Greenland current, almost perpetually veiled with mists, and
surrounded by drift ice, would scarcely ever be disturbed in its dreary solitude
but for the numerous walrus and seal herds that frequent its shores. The ice-
bears and the wild sea-birds are its only inhabitants ; once some Dutchmen at-
tempted to winter there, but the scurvy swept them all away. Its most remark-
able features are the volcano Esk and the huge mountain Beerenberg, towering
to the height of 6870 feet', with seven enornlous glaciers sweeping down its
sides into the sea.
NOVA ZEMBLA. 147
CHAPTER XL
NOVA ZEMBLA.
The Sea of Kara. — Loschkin. — Eosuiysslow. — Liitke. — Krotow. — Paclitussow. — Sails along the east-
ern Coast of the Southern Island to Matoschkin Schar. — His second Voj'age and Death. — Meteoro-
logical Observations of Ziwolka. — The cold Summer of Nova Zembla. — VonBaer's scientific Voj-age
to Nova Zembla. — His Adventures in Matoschkin Schar. — Storm in Kostin Schar. — Sea Bath and
votive Cross. — Botanical Observations. — A natural Garden. — Solitude and Silence. — A Bird Ba-
zar.— Hunthig Expeditions of the Russians to Nova Zembla.
^T^IIE sea of Kava, bounded on the west by Nova Zembla, and on the east by
-■- the vast peninsula of Tajmurland, is one of tlie most inhospitable parts of
the inhospitable Polar Ocean. For all the ice which the east-westerly marine
currents drift during the summer along the Siberian coasts accumulates in that
immense land-locked bay, and almost constantly blocks the gate of Kara, as
the straits have been named that separate Nova Zembla from the island of
Waigatz.
The rivers Jenissei and Obi, which remain frozen over until late in June,
likewise discharge their vast masses of ice into the gulf of Kara, so that we
can not wonder that the eastern coast of Nova Zembla, fronting a sea which
opposes almost insuperable obstacles to the Arctic navigator, has remained al-
most totally unknown until 1833, while the western coast, exposed to the Gulf
Stream, and bathed, in summer at least, by a vast open ocean, has long been
traced in all its chief outlines on the map.
The walrus-hunter Loschkin is indeed said to have sailed along the whole
eastern coast of Nova Zembla in the last century, but we have no authentic
records of his voyage, and at a later period Rosmysslow, who, penetrating ^
through Mathew's Straits, or Matoschkin Schar, found Nova Zembla to consist
of two large islands, investigated but a small part of those unknown shores.
From 1819 to 1824 the Russian Government sent out no less than five expedi-
tions to the sea of Kara ; the famous circumnavigator Admiral Liitke en-
deavored no less than four times to advance along the eastern coast of Nova
Zembla, but all these efforts proved fruitless against the superior power of a
stormy and ice-blocked sea. Yet in spite of these repeated failures, two enter-
prising men — Klokow, a chief inspector of forests, and Brandt, a rich merchant
of Archangel — fitted out three ships in 1832 for the purpose of solving the
mysteries of the sea of Kara.
One of these vessels, commanded by Lieutenant Krotow, was to penetrate
through Mathew's Straits, and, having reached their eastern outlet, to sail thence
across the sea to the mouth of the Obi and the Jenissei ; but nothing more
Avas heard of the ill-fated ship after her first separation fpm her companions at
Kanin Nos.
The second ship, which was to sail along the western coast of Nova Zem-
bla, and, if possible, to round its northern extremity, was more fortunate, for
148 THE POLAR WORLD.
though it never reached that point, it returned home witli a rich cargo of wal-
rus-teeth.
The third ship, finally, under Pachtussow's command, was to penetrate
throuo-h the gate of Kara, and from thence to proceed along the eastern coast.
When Pachtussow, according to his instructions, had reached the straits, all
his efforts to effect a passage proved ineffectual. It was in vain he more than
once steered to the east ; the stormy weather and large masses of drift ice con-
stantly threw him back, the short summer approached its end, and thus he was
obliged to put off all further attempts to the next year, and to settle for the
winter in Rocky Bay within the gate of Kara. A small hut was built out of
the drift-wood found on the spot, and joined by means of a gallery of sail-cloth
to a bathing-room, that indispensable comfort of a Russian. The laying of
traps, in which many Arctic foxes were caught, and the carrying of the w^ood,
which had sometimes to be fetched from a distance of ten versts, occupied the
crew during fair weather. In April a party under Pachtussows command
set out for the purpose of exploring the western coast. On this expedition
they were overtaken on the twenty-fourth day of the month by a terrible snow-
storm, which obliged them to throw themselves flat upon the ground to avoid
being swept away by the wind. They remained three days without food under
the snow, as it was impossible for them to reach the depot of provisions buried
a few versts off.
On June 24 the gate of Kara was at length open, and Pachtussow would
gladly have sailed through the passage, but his ship was fast in the ice. He
therefore resolved, in order to make the best use of his time, to examine the
eastern coast in a boat, and reached in this manner the small Sawina River,
where he found a wooden ci'oss with the date of 1V42. Most likely it had
been placed there by Loschkin, his predecessor on the path of discovery. He
now returned with his boat to the ship, which, after an imprisonment of 297
days, was at length, July 11, able to leave the bay.
On Stadolski Island, near Cape Menschikoff, they found a wretched hut,
which proved that they were, not the first to penetrate into these deserts. But
the hut Avas tenantless, and a number of human bones were strewn over the
ground. One of Pachtussow's companions now related that in 1822 a Samo-
jede, named Mawei, had gone with his Avife and children to Nova Zembla, and
had never returned. On gathering the bones, they were found to compose the
skeletons of two chUdreu and of a woman, but no remains could be discovered
of the man. Most likely the unfortunate savage had been surprised by a snow-
storm, or had fallen a prey to a hungry ice-bear, on one of his excursions, and
his family, deprived of their support, had died of hunger in the hut.
On July 19 they reached the river Stawinen, and on the 21st Liitke's Bay,
where a number of white dolphins and seals of an unknoAvn species were found.
Here contrary Avinds arrested the progress of the navigators during eighteen
days. On August IS^Pachtussow entered Matoschkin Schar, and reached its
western mouth on the 19th. Thus he succeeded at least in circumnavigating
the southern island, Avhich no one had achieved before him, and as his exhaust-
ed provisions did not allow him to spend a second winter in Nova Zembla, he
NOVA ZEMBLA. 149
resolved to return at once to Archangel. But contrary winds drove him to
the island of Kolgujew, and thence to the mouth of the Petschora, where, on
September 3, a dreadful storm at length shattered his craay vessel. The crew
found refuge in a hut, but this also was filled by the Avator ; so that they had
to wade several versts before they could reach the dry land.
Pachtussow now travelled by way of Archangel and Onega to St. Peters-
burg, where he communicated the results of his journey to the Minister of
Marine, who gave him a most flattering reception, well merited by his ability
and courage. The success he had'already obtained encouraged the hope that
a second expedition would be able to complete the undertaking, and consequent-
ly, by an imperial order, the schooner Krotow and a transport were fitted out,
with which Pachtussow once more sailed from the port of Archangel on
August 5. His instructions were to winter in Mathew's Straits, and thence to
atteftipt in the following summer the exploration of the eastern coast of the
northern island. Tlie winter hut he built at the western entrance of the straits
was ready for his reception by October 20. It was of stately dimensions, for a
Nova Zembla residence — 25 feet long^ 21 broad, 8 feet high in the centre, 5 at
the sides, and consisted of two compartments, one for the ofiicers and the other
for the crew. They found the cold very endurable, but were rMher incom-
moded by the smoke, which did not always find a ready passage through the
opening in the roof. Sometimes the snow accumulated in such masses, or the
storm raged so furiously round the hut, that they could not leave it for eight
days running, and frequently the hole in the roof had to serve them for a door.
Eleven white bears were killed about the hut during the winter; one on the
roof, another in the passage. Pachtussow, well aware that occupation is the
best remedy against melancholy, kept his crew in constant activity. They
w^ere obliged to fetch wood from distances of ten or eleven versts, not seldom
during a cold of —36°, which, thanks to their thick fur dresses, they bore re-
markably well, particularly as a temperature lower than —25° never occurred,
unless during perfectly calm weather. He also made them lay fox-traps at
considerable distances from the hut, and amused them with shooting at a mark
and gymnastic exercises. By this means he succeeded in preserving their
health, and warding off the attacks of the scurvy.
As early as Ajiril the indefatigable Pachtussow fitted out two sledge-parties,
for the exploration of the eastern coast. The one, consisting of seven men, he
commanded in person ; the other was led by the steersman Ziwolka. Both
parties travelled in company as far as the eastern entrance of the straits, where
one of the huts in which Rosmysslow had wintered seventy years before was
still found in a good condition.
Pachtussow now returned for the purpose of accurately surveying the straits,
while Ziwolka proceeded along the east coast, with a small tent and provisions
for a month. All his men had Samojede dresses, but they wei-e already so
hardened that they did not wear the upper coat with the hood even during the
night, although snow-storms not seldom occurred. Once their boots were
frozen so hard that they could not pull them off before they had been previous-
ly thawed, and as drift-wood was nowhere to be found, they were obliged to
ISO THE POLAR WORLD.
burn the poles of their tent, and to keep their feet over the fire until the leather
became soft. On May 18, the thirty-fourth day of his journey, Ziwolka re-
turned to his commander, after having explored the east coast northward to a
distance of 150 vcrsts.
Meaiiwhile Pachtussow had been busy building a boat eighteen feet lonir,
with which he intended to i>roceed along the western coast to the northern ex-
tremity of the island, and, the elements permitting, to return to the straits
along its eastern shores. About the beginning of June the migratory birds
made their appearance, and introduced a vei^ agreeable change in the monoton-
ous fare of the navigators, who, a few weeks later, enjoyed the sight of bloom-
ing flowers, and gathered antiscorbutic herbs in large quantities.
Thus the high northern land had assumed its most friendly aspect, and looked
as cheerfully as it possibty- could, when, on July 11, Pachtussow and Ziwolka
set out for the north with the boat and the transport, the schooner being'-left
behind in the straits with the surgeon and a few invalids. At first the Avind
and weather favored their course, but on July 21 the boat was smashed be-
tween two pieces of ice, so that they had hardly time to escape upon the land
with the nautical instruments, a sack of flour, and some butter.
In this unpleasant situation they were obliged to remain for thirteen days,
until at last a walrus-hunter appeared, who took the shij^wrecked explorers
on board, and brought them safely back to their winter-quarters on August 22.
Thus this first attempt ended in complete disappointment, and the season was
already too far advanced to permit of its renewal. Yet PachtussoAV, resolving
with praiseworthy zeal to make the most of the last days of the short summer,
set out again on August 26 for the eastern entrance of the straits, and proceeded
along the coast, until he was stopped by the ice at some distance beyond the
small islands which bear his name.
Convinced of the fruitlessness of all further efforts, Pachtussow bade adieu
with a sorrowful heart to the coast, which still stretched out before him in un-
discovered mystery, and sailed back again to Archangel on September 20. Soon
after his return he fell ill, and f oiir weeks later his mourning friends carried him
to his grave.
The Arctic Ocean is so capricious that in the following year the walrus-
hunter Issakow, of Kem, who had no discoveries in view, was able to round
without difiiculty the north-eastern extremity of Nova Zembla, but, fearful of
encountering the dangers of that dreadful coast, he almost immediately returned.
During the two winters he spent in Nova Zembla, the steersman Ziwolka
had daily consulted the thermometer, and the result of his observations gave
to the western entrance of Mathew's Straits a mean annual temperature
of -fir.
Thus Nova Zembla is colder than the west coast of Spitzbergen, which, al-
though still farther to the north, is more favorably situated with regard to the
winds and currents, and from five to ten degrees warmer than the high north-
ern parts of Siberia and continental America, which sustain a comparatively
numerous population, while Nova Zembla is uninhabited. Hence this want,
and the circumstance that the vegetation of these islands scarcely rises a span
NOVA ZEMBLA. 151
above the ground, while the forest region still penetrates far within the con-
fines of the colder continental regions above mentioned, are to be ascribed not
to the low mean annual temperature of Nova Zembla, but to the unfavorable
distribution of warmth over the various seasons of the year. For although
high Northern Siberia and America have a/ar colder winter, they enjoy a con-
siderahly loarmer summer, and this it is which in the higher latitudes determines
the existence or the development of life on the dry land. During the winter
the organic world is partly sheltered under the snow, or else it migrates, or it
produces within itself sufficient warmth to defy the cold— and thus a few de-
grees more or less at that time of the year are of no material consequence, Avhile
the warmth of summer is absolutely indispensable to awaken life and determine
its development.
The comparatively mild vyinter of Nova Zembla (no less than thirty-three de-
grees warmer than that of Jakutsk) is therefore of but little benefit to vegetable
iife, which on the other hand suffers considerably from a summer inferior even
to that of Melville Island and Boothia Felix. A coast where the sun, in spite of
a day of several months' continuance, generates so small a quantity of heat, and
where yet some vegetation is able to flourish, must necessarily be well worthy
the attention of botanists, or rather of all those who take an interest in the
geographical distribution of plants. For if in the primitive forests of Brazil
the naturalist admires the effects of a tropical sun and an excessive humidity in
producing the utmost exuberance of vegetation, it is no less interesting for him
to observe how Flora under the most adverse circumstances still wages a suc-
cessful war against death and destruction.
Thus a few years after Pachtussow's expedition, the desire to explore a land
so remarkable in a botanical point of view, and to gather new fruits for science
in the wilderness, induced Herr von Baer, though already advanced in years, to
undertake the journey to Nova Zembla.
Accompanied by two younger naturalists, Mr. Lehmann and Mr. Rodcr, the
celebrated Petersburg academician arrived on July 29, 1837, at the western en-
trance of Mathew's Straits, sailed through them the next day in a boat, and
reached the sea of Kara, where he admired a prodigious number of jelly-fishes
{Pleurohrachia pileus) swimming about in the ice-cold waters, and displaying
a marvellous beauty of coloring in their ciliated ribs. Tliis excursion might,
however, have had very disagreeable consequences, for a dreadful storm, blow-
ing from the west, prevented their boat from returning, and forced them to pass
the night with some walrus-hunters, whom they had the good-fortune to meet
with. On the following day the storm abated, so that the return could be at-
tempted ; they were, however, obliged to land on a small island in the Beluga
Bay, where, wet to the skin, and their limbs shaking with cold, they fortunately
found a refuge in the ruins of a hut in which Rosmysslow had wintered in 1 767.
Meanwhile the wind had veered to the east, accompanied by a very disagreeable
cold rain, which on the mountains took the form of snow ; they were now, how-
ever, able to make use of their sail, and arrived late at night at the spot where
their ship lay at anchor, completely wet, but in good health and spirits.
" We could esteem ourselves happy," says Von Baer, " in having pnid so
152 THE POLAE WORLD.
slight a penalty for neglecting the jDvecaution, so necessary to all travellers in
Nova Zembla, of providing for a week when you set out for a day's excursion."
On August 4, after a thorough botanical examination of the straits, the party
proceeded along the west coast. The wnnd, blowing from the north, brouglit
them to the Kostin'^char, a maze of passages between numerous islets, where
the walrus-hunters in Nova Zembla chiefly assemble.
On August 9 an excursion was made up the ri^er Nechwatowa"; where they
rested in a hut which had been erected by some fisherman employed in catching
" golzi," or Arctic salmon. On returning to the ship, a dreadful storm arose f rona
the north-east, which lasted nine days, and, very fortunately for the botanists,
caught them in the Kostin Schar, and not on the high sea. Although they were
anchored in a sheltered bay, the waves frequently swept over the deck of their
vessel, and compelled them to remain all the time in their small, low cabin.
Only once they made an attempt to land, but the wind was so strong that they
coidd hardly stand. Their situation was rendered still more terrible and anxious,
as part of the crew which had been sent out hunting before the storm began
had not yet returned.
When at last the storm ceased, winter seemed about to begin in good earn-
est. Every night ice formed, in the river, and the land was covered with snow,
Avhich had surprised the scanty vegetation in its full bloom. At length the
hunters returned, after having endured terrible hardshi^^s, and now preparations
were made for a definitive departure. A general bath was taken, without which
no anchorage in Nova Zembla is ever left, and, according to ancient custom, a
votive cross was likewise erected on the strand, as a memorial of the expedi-
tion.
On August 28 the anchors were weighed, but they were soon dropped again
in the Schar, to examine on a small island the vegetable and animal products of
the land and of the shore. The former offered but few objects of interest, but
they were astonished at the exuberance of marine life. After having been de-
tained by a thick fog in this place for several days, they at length sailed towards
the White Sea, where they were obliged by contrary winds to run into Tri Os-
trowa. Dreary and desolate as the tundras at this extreme point of Lapland
had appeared to them on their journey outward, they were now charmed with
their green slopes, a sight of which they had been deprived in Nova Zembla.
On September 1 1 they at length reached the port of Archangel, with the
agreeable prospect of passing the winter in a comfortable study at St. Peters-
burg instead of spending it, like Barentz and his associates, as might easily have
happened, in a wretched hut beyond the 70th degree of northern latitude.
Having thus briefly sketched Von Baer's adventures, I will now notice some
of the most interesting scientific results of his journey.
The rocky Avest coast of Nova Zembla has about the same appeai-ance as the
analogous part of Spitzbergen, for here also the mountains, particularly in the
northern island, rise abruptly to a height of three or four thousand feet from
the sea, while the eastern coast is generally flat. In both countries, angular
blocks of stone, precipitated from the summits, cover the sides of the hills, and
frequently make it impossible to ascend them. In fact, no rock, however hai'd
NOVA ZEMBLA. 153
or finely grained, is able to withstand the effects of a climate where the sum-
mer is so wet and the winter so severe. Nowhere in Nova Zembla is a grass-
covered spot to be found deserving the name of a meadow. Even the folia-
ceous lichens, which grow so luxuriantly in Lapland, have here a stunted ap-
pearance ; but, as Von Baer remarks, this is owing less to the cHmate than to
the nature of the soil, as plants of this description thrive best on chalky ground.
The crustaceous lichens, however, cover the blocks of augite and porphyry with
a motley vesture, and the dingy carpet with which Dryas octopetala invests
here and there the dry slopes, formed of rocky detritus, reminds one of the
tundras of Lapland.
The scanty vegetable covering which this only true social plant of Nova
Zembla affords is, however, but an inch thick, and can easily be detached like
a cap from the rock beneath.
On a clayey ground in moist and low situations, the mosses afford a pro-
tection to the polar willow {/Salix jyolaris), which raises but two leaves and a
catkin over the surface of its covering.
Even the most sparing sheet of humus has great difficulty to form in Nova
Zembla, as in a great number of the plants which grow there the discolored
leaf dries on the stalk, and is then swept away by the winds, so that the land
would appear still more naked if many j^lants, such as the snow xanunculus
[Ranunculus nivalis), were not so extremely abstemious as to require no hu-
mus at all, but merely a rocky crevice or .some loose gravel capable of retaining
moisture in its interstices.
But even in Nova Zembla there are some more favored spots. Thus when
Von Baer landed at the foot of a high slate mountain fronting the south-west,
and reflecting the rays of the sun, he was astonished and delighted to see a gay
mixture of purple silenes, golden ranunculuses, peach-colored parryas, white
cerastias, and blue palemones, and was particularly pleased at finding the well-
known forget-me-not among the ornaments of this Arctic pasture. Between
these various flowers the soil was everywhere visible, for the dicotyledonous
plants of the high latitudes produce no more foliage than is necessary to set
off the colors of th^ blossoms, and have generally more flowers than leaves.
The entire vegetation of the island is confined to the superficial layer of the
soil and to the lower stratum of the air. Even those plants which in warm
climates have a descending or vertical root have here a horizontal one, and
none, whether grasses or shrubs, grow higher than a span above the ground.
In the polar willow, a single pair of leaves sits on a stem about as thick as
a straw, although the whole plant forms an extensive shrub with numerous ram-
ifications. Another species of willow {Salix lanata) attains the considerable
height of a span, and is a perfect giant among the Nova Zembla plants, for the
thick subterranean trunk sometimes measures two inches in diameter, and can
be laid bare for a length of ten or twelve feet without finding the end. Thus
in this country the forests are more in than above the earth.
This horizontal development of vegetation is caused by the sun principally
heating the superficial sheet of earth, which imparts its warmth to thfi stratum
of air immediately above it, and thus confines the plants within the narrow
154 THE POLAR WORLD.
limits which best suit their growth. Hence also the influence of position on
vegetation is so great that, while a plain open to the winds is a complete des-
ert, a gentle mountain slope not seldom resembles a garden.
The absence of all trees or shrubs, or even of all vigorous herbage, imparts
a character of the deepest solitude to the Nova Zembla landscape, and inspires
even the rough sailor with a kind of religious awe. "It is," says Von Baer,
" as if the dawn of creation had but just begun, apd life w^ere still to be called
into existence." The universal silence is but rarely broken by the noise of an
animal. But neither the cry of the sea-mew, wheeling in the air, nor the rus-
tling of the lemming in the stunted herbage are able to animate the scene. No
voice is heard in calm weather. The rare land-birds are silent as well as the
insects, which are comparatively still fewer in number. This tranquillity of
nature, particularly during serene days, reminds the spectator of the quiet of
the grave ; and the lemmings seem like phantoms as they glide noiselessly
from burrow to burrow. In our fields even a slight motion of the air becomes
visible in the foliage of the trees or in the waving of the corn ; here the low
plants are so stiff and immovable that one might suppose them to be painted.
The rare sand-bee {4ndrena), which on sunny days and in warm places flies
about with languid wings, has scarcely the spirit to hum, and the flies and
gnats, though more frequent, are equally feeble and inoffensive.
As a proof of the rarity of insects in Nova Zembla, Von Baer mentions that
not a single larva was to be found in a dead walrus which had been lying at
least fourteen days on the shore. The hackneyed phrase of our funeral ser-
mons can not therefore be applied to these high latitudes, where even above
the earth the decay of bodies is extremely slow.
However poor the vegetation of Nova Zembla may be, it still suffices to
nourish a number of lemmings, which live on leaves, stems, and buds, but not
on roots. The slopes of the moimtains are often undermined in all directions
by their burrows. Next to these lemmings, the Arctic foxes are the most nu-
merous quadrupeds, as they find plenty of food in the above-mentioned little
rodents, as well as in the young birds, and in the bodies of the marine animals
which are cast aSliore by the tides. White bears are scarcely ever seen during
the summer, and the reindeer seems to have decreased in numbers, at least on
the west coast, where they are frequently shot by the Russian morse-hunters.
The hosts of sea-birds in some parts of the coast prove that the waters are
far more prolific than the land. The foolish guillemots ( Uria troile), closely
congregated in rows, one above the other, on the- narrow ledges of vertical
rock-walls, make the black stone appear striped with white. Such a breeding-
place is called by the Russians a bazar. On the summit of isolated cliffs, and
suffering no other bird in his vicinity, nestles the large gray sea-mew {Zarus
f/laucus), to whom the Dutch whale-catchers have given the name of "burgh-
ermaster." While the ice-bear is monarch of the land animals, this gull appears
as the sovereign lord of all the sea-birds around, and no guillemot would ven-
ture to dispute the possession of a dainty morsel claimed by the imperious
biirgherifi aster.
This abundance of the sea has also attracted man to the desert shores of
NOVA ZEMBLA. • 155
Nova Zerabla. Long before Barentz made Western Europe acquainted with
the existence of Nova Zembla (1594-96), the Land was known to the Russians
as a valuable hunting or fishing ground ; for the Dutch discoverer met with a
large number of their vessels on its coast. Burrough, who visited the port of
Kola in 1556, in search of the unfortunate Willoughby, and thence sailed as
far as the mouth of the Petschora, likewise saw in the gulf of Kola no less than
thirty lodjes, all destined for walrus-hunting in Nova Zembla.
Whether, before the Russians* the adventurous Norsemen ever visited these
desolate islands, is unknown, but so much is certain, that ever since the times
of Barentz the expeditions of the Muscovites to its western coast have been
iminterruptedly continued. As is the case with all fishing speculations, their
success very much depends upon chance. The year 1834 was very lucrative,
so that in the following season about eighty ships, with at least 1000 nen on
board, sailed for Nova Zembla from the ports of the White Sea, but this time
the results were so unsatisfactory that in 1836 scarce half the number were
fitted out. In 1837 no more than twenty vessels were employed, and Von
Baer relates that but one of them which penetrated into the sea of Kara made
a considerable profit, while all the rest, with but few exceptions, did not pay
one-half of their expenses.
The most valuable animals are the walrus and the white dolphin, or belnga.
Ainong the seals, the Phoca albigena of Pallas distinguishes itself by its size,
the thickness of its skin, and its quantity of fat ; Phoca groenlancUca and Phoca
hispida rank next in estimation. The Greenland whale never extends his ex-
cursions to the waters of Nova Zembla, but the fin-back And the grampus are
frequently seen.
The Alpine salmon {Salmo aljnnus), which towards autumn ascends into
the mountain-lakes, is caught in incredible numbers ; and, finally, the bean-
goose {Anser segetum) breeds so frequently, at least upon the southern island,
that the gathering of its quill-feathers is an object of some importance.
156 THE POLAR WORLD.
CHAPTER XII.
THE LAPPS.
Their ancient History and Conversion to Christianity.— Self-denial and Poverty of the Lapland Clergy.
—Their singular Mode of Preaching.— Gross Superstition of the Lapps.— The Evil Spirit of the
Woods.— The Lapland Witches.— Physical Constitution of the Lapps.— Their Dress.— The Fj ,lllap-
pars.— Their Dwellings.— Store-houses.— Reindeer Pens.— Milking the Reindeer.— Migi-ation.-
The Lapland Dog.— Skiders, or Skates.— The Sledge, or Pulka.— Natural Beauties of Lapland.—
Attachment of the Lapps to their Country.— Bear-hunting.— Wolf-hunting.— Mode of Living of the
wealthy Lapps.— How they kill the Reindeer.- Visiting the Fair.— Mammon Worship.— Treasure-
hiding."-" Tabak, or Braeude."— Afiectionate Disposition of the Lapps.— The Skogslapp.— The
Fislierlapp.
THE nation of the Lapps spreads over the northern parts of Scandhiavia
and Finland from about the 63d degree of latitude to the confines of
the Polar Ocean ; but their number, hardly amounting to more than twenty
thousand, bears no proportion to the extent of the vast regions in which they
are found. Although now subject to the crowns of Russia, Sweden, and Xor-
Avay, they anciently possessed the whole Scandinavian peninsula, until the sons
of Odin drove them farther and farther to the north, and, taking possession of
the coasts and valleys, left them nothing but the bleak mountain and the deso-
late tundra. In the thirteenth century, under the reign of Magnus Ladislas,
King of Sweden, their subjugation was completed by the Birkaiis, a race
dwelling oh the borders of the Bothnian Gulf. These Birkarls had to pay the
crown a slight tribute, which they wrung more than a hundred-fold from the
Lapps, untif at length Gustavus I. granted the persecuted savages the protec-
tion of more equitable laws, and sent missionaries among them to relieve them
at the same time from the yoke of their ancient superstitions. In 1600 Charles
IX. ordered churches to be built in their country, and, some years after, his son
and successor, the celebrated Gustavus Adolijhus, founded a school for the
Lapps at Pitea, and ordered several elementary works to be translated into
their language. In the year 1602, Christian IV., King of Denmark and Nor-
way, while on a visit to the province of Finmark, was so incensed at the gross
idolatry of the Lapps that he ordered their priests or sorcerers to be persecuted
with bloody severity. A worthy clergyman, Eric Bredal, of Drontheim, used
means more consonant Avith the spirit of the Gospel, and, having instructed
several young Lapps, sent them back again as missionaries to their famiJies.
Those interpreters of a purer faith were, however, received as apostates and
traitors by their suspicious countrymen, and cruelly murdered, most likely at
the instigation of the sorcerers. In 1707 Frederic IV. founded the Finmark
mission, and in 171G Thomas Westen, a man of rare zeal and perseverance,
j5reached the Gospel in the Avildest districts of the province. Other mission-
aries and teachers followed his example, and at leiagth succeeded in converting
the Lapi)s, and in some measure conquering their ancient barbarism. Nothing
THE LAPPS. 157
can be more admirable than the self-denial and heroic fortitude of these minis-
ters of Christ, for to renounce all that is precious in the eyes of the world to
follow nomads little better than savages through the wilds of an Arctic couutry
surely requires a courage not inferior to that of the soldier
Who seeks preferment at the cannon's mouth.
The Lapland schoolmaster enjoys an annual salary of twenty-five dollars,
and receives besides half a dollar for every child instructed. But the priest
is not much better off, as his stipend amounts to no more than thirty dollars
in money, and to about 150 dollars in produce. Among this miserably paid
clergy there are, as in Iceland, men worthy of a better lot. The famous Lo-
stadius was priest at Karesuando, seventy-five leagues from Tromso, the near-
est town, and a hundred leagues from Tornea. His family lived upon rye bread
and fishes, and but rarely tasted reindeer flesh. Chamisso mentions another
Lapland priest who had spent seven years in his parish, which lay beyond the
limits of the forest region. In the summer he was completely isolated, as then
the Lapps wandered with their herds to the cool shores of the icy sea ; and in
the winter, when the moon afforded fight, he travelled about in his sledge, fre-
quently bivouacking at the temperature of freezing mercury, to visit his Lapps.
During ah that'time his solitude had been but twice broken by civilized man ;
a brother had come to see him, and a botanist had strayed to his dweUing. He
weU knew how to appreciate the pleasure of such meetings, but neither this
pleasure nor any other, he said, was equal to that of seeing the sun rise again
above the horizon after the long winter's night.
It is a singular custom that the pastors preaching to the Lapps deliver their
harangues in a tone of voice as elevated as if their audience, instead of being
assembled in a small chapel, were stationed upon the top of a distant mount-
ain, and labor as if they were going to burst a bloodvessel. Dr. Clarke, who
listened to one of these sermons, which lasted one hour and twenty minutes,
ventured to ask the reason of the very loud tone of voice used in preaching.
The minister said he was aware that it must appear extraordinary to a
stranger, but that, if he were to address the Laplanders in a lower key, they
would consider him as a feeble and impotent missionary, wholly unfit for his
ofiice, and would never come to church ; that the merit and abilities of the
preacher, like that of many a popular politician, are always estimated by the
strength and power of his lungs.
Though the Lapps (thanks to the efforts of their spiritual guides) hardly
even remember by name the gods of their fathers — Aija, Akka, Tuona— they
still pay a secret homage to the Saidas, or idols of wood or stone, to whom they
were accustomed to sacrifice the bones and horns of the reindeer. They aije in
fact an extremely superstitious racCj faithfully believing in ghosts, witchcraft,
and above all in Stallo, or TroUer, the evil spirit of the woods.
Many of them, when about to go hunting, throw a stick into the air, and
then take their way in the direction to which it points. The appearance of
the Aurora borealis fills them with terror, as they believe it to be a sign of
divine wrath, and generally shout and howl during the whole duration of
158 THE POLAR WORLD.
the grand phenomenon, ^vhich their ignorance connects Avith their own petty ex-
istence.
The pretended gift of being able to predict future events is common among
the Laplanders. The sorcerers fall into a magic sleep, during which their soul
Avanders. In this state, like the somuambules of more polished nations, they re-
veal things to come or see what passes at a distance. Men and women affect
the power of fortune-telling by the common trick of palmistry, or by the inspec-
tion of a cup of liquor ; and this, to insure the greatest possible certainty, myist
be a cup of brandy, which at once explains the whole business of the prophecy.
The Lapland witches pretended, or perhaps still pretend, to the power of still-
ing the Avind or causing the rain to cease, and such was their reputation that
English seamen trading to Archangel made it a point to laud and buy a wind
from these poor creatures.
The Lapps are a dAvarfish race. On an average, the men do not exceed five
feet in height, many not even reaching four, and the Avomen are considerably
less. Most of them are, hoAvever, very robust, the circumference of their chest
nearly equalling their height. Their complexion is more or less taAvny and
copper-colored, their hair dark, straight, and lank, its dangling masses adding
much to the Avildness of their aspeqt. They have very little beard, and as its
want is considered a beauty, the young men carefully eradicate the scanty sup-
ply given them by nature.
Their dark piercing eyes are generally deep sunk in their heads, Avidely sep-
arated from each other, and, like those of the Tartars or Chinese, obliquely slit
toAvards the temples. The cheek-Tbones are high, the mouth pinched close, but
Avide, the nose flat. The eyes are generally sore, either in consequence of the
biting smoke of their huts or of the refraction from the snow, so that a Lapp
seldom attains a high age Avithout becoming blind. Their countenances gener-
ally present a repulsive combination of stolidity, low cunning, and obstinacy.
Hogguer, Avho dwelt several months among them, and saw during this time at
least 800 Lapps, found not twenty Avho were not decidedly ugly ; and Dr. Clarke
says that many of them, Avhen more advanced in years, might, if exhibited in a
menagerie of Avild beasts, be considered as the long-lost link betAveen liian and
ape.
Their legs are extremely thick and clumsy, but their hands are as small and
finely shaped as those of any aristrocrat. The reason for this is that from gen-
eration to generation they never perform any manual labor, and the very trifling
work Avhich they do is necessarily of the lightest kind. Their limbs are singular-
ly flexible, easily falling into any posture, like all the Oriental nations, and their
hands are constantly occupied in the beginning of conversation Avith filling a
short tobacco-pipe, the head being turned over one shoulder to the person ad-
dressed. Such are the traits by Avhich the whole tribe is distinguished from
the other inhabitants of Europe, and in which they differ from the other natives
of the land in Avhich they live.
The summer garb of the men consists of the " poesk," a sort of tunic, gener-
ally made of a very coarse light-colored Avoollen cloth, reaching to the knees, and
fastened round the Avaist Avith a belt or girdle. Their AvOollen caps are shaped
THE LAPPS. 159
precisely like a night-cap, or a Turkish fez, with a red tassel nnd red worsted
band round the rim, for they are fond of lively hues strongly contrasted.
Their boots or shoes are made of the raw skin of the reindeer, with the hair
outward, and have a peaked shape. Though these shoes are very thin, and the
Lapp wears no stockings, yet he is never annoyed by the cold or by striking
against stones, as he stuffs them with the broad leaves of the Garex vesicaria,
or cyperus grass, which he cuts in summer and dries. This he first combs and
rubs in his hands, and then places it in such a manner that it covers not only
his feet but his legs also, and, being thus guarded, he is quite secure against
the intense cold. With this grass, which is an admirable non-conductor of heat,
he likewise stuffs his gloves in order to preserve his hands. But as it wards
off the cold in winter, so in summer it keeps the feet cool, and is consequently
used at all seasons. The women's apparel differs very little from that of the
other sex, but their girdles are more ornamented with rings and chains. In
winter both sexes are so packed up in skins as to look more like bears than
human beings, and, when squatting according to the fashion of their country,
exhibit a mound of furs, with the head resting upon the top of it.
According to their different mode of life, the Lapps may be aptly subdivided
into Fjalllappars, or Mountain Lapps ; Skogslappars, or Wood Lapps ; and
Fisherlapps.
The Fjalllappars, who form the greater and most characteristic part of the
nation, lead an exclusively pastoral life, and are constantly wandering with their
herds of reindeer from place to place, for the lichen which forms the chief food
of these animals during the greater part of the year is soon cropped from the
niggard soil, and requires years fpr its reproduction. For this reason, also, this
people do not herd together, and never more than three or four families pitch
their huts, or tuguria, upon the same spot. Of course the dwelling of the no-
mad Lapp harmonizes Avith his vagrant habits ; a rude tent, which can easily
be taken to pieces, and as easily erected, is all he requires to shelter his family
and chattels. It consists of flexible stems of trees, placed together in a conical
form, like a stack of poles for hops, and covered in the summer Avith a coarse
cloth, in winter with additional skins, to be better fenced against the inclemencies
of the climate. To form the entrance, a part of the hanging, about eighteen
inches wide at the bottom, and terminating upward in a point, is made to turn
back as upon hinges. The hearth, consisting of several large stones, is in the
centre, and in the roof immediately above it is a square opening for the escape
of smoke and the admission of rain, snow, and air. All the light Avhich the den
receives when the door is closed comes from this hole. The diameter of one
of these conical huts generally measures at its base no more than six feet ; its
whole circumference, of course, does not exceed eighteen feet, and its extreme
height may be about ten feet. The floor is very nearly covered with reindeer
skins, on which the inmates squat during the day and sleep at nights, contract-
ing their hmbs together and huddling round their hearth, so that each individ-
ual of this pigmy race occupies scarcely more space than a dog. On the side of
the tent are suspended a number of pots, wooden bowls, and other household
utensils ; and a small chest contains the holiday ai)parel of the family. Such
160 THE POLA-R WORLD.
are the dwellings of those among the Laplanders Avho are called wealthy, and
who sometimes possess very considerable property.
Near the tent is the dairy or store-house of the establishment. It consists of
nothing more than a shelf or platform, raised between two trees, so as to be
out of the reach of the dogs or wolves. The means of ascent to this treasury
of curds, cheese, and dried reindeer flesh, is simply a tree stripped of its
branches, but j)resenting at every foot or so knobs, which serve the same pur-
pose as staves on a ladder, the tree being obliquely reared against the platform.
Another characteristic feature of a Lapp encampment is found in the inclos-
ures in which the reindeer are penned during the night or for the purpose of
milking. These are circus-like open places, each of a diameter of about one
hundred and fifty feet, and are formed by stumps of trees and poles set upright
on the ground, and linked together by horizontal poles. Against the latter are
reared birch poles and branches of trees, varying from six to ten feet in height,
without the slightest attempt at neatness, the whole being as rude as well can
be — a sufficient security against the wolves being all that its builders desire.
The milkmg of a herd of reindeer presents a most animated scene. Wh^n
they have been driven within the inclosure, and all outlets are secured, a Lapp,
selecting a long thong or cord, takes a turn of both ends round his left hand,
and then gathers what sailors call the bight in loose folds, held in his right. He
now singles out a reindeer, and throws the bight with unerring aim over the
antlers of the victim. Sometimes the latter makes no resistance, but in general
the moment it feels the touch of the thong it breaks away from the spot, and
is only secured by the most strenuous exertions. Every minute may be seen
an unusually powerful deer furiously dragging a Lapp round and round the in-
closure, and sometimes it fairly overcomes the restraint of the thong, and leaves
its antagonist prostrate on the sod. This part of the scene is highly exciting,
and it is impossible not to admire the trained skill evinced by all the Lapps,
women as well as men. The resistance of the deer being overcome, the Lapp
takes a dexterous hitch of the thong round his muzzle and head, and then fastens
him to the trunk of a prostrate tree, many of which have been brought within
the level inclosure for that especial purpose. Men and women are indiscrimi-
nately engaged both in singling out milch reins and in milking them. Every
one is fully occupied, for even the little children are practising the throwing of
the lasso, in Avhich they evince great dexterity, although their strength is insuf-
ficient to hold the smallest doe.
When the pasture in the neighborhood is fully exhausted, which generally
takes place in about a fortnight, the encampment is broken up, to be erected
again on some other spot. In less than half an hour the tent is taken to pieces,
and packed with all the household fm-niture upon the backs of reindeer, who by
long training acquire the capacity of serving as beasts of burden. On the
journey they are bound together, five and five, with thongs of leather, and led
by the women over the mountains, while the father of the family precedes the
march to select a proper place for the new encampment, and lys sons or serv-
ants follow with the remainder of the herd.
Towards the end of spring the Lapps descend from the mountains to the
THE LAPPS. 161
sea. When they approach its borders, the reindeer, sniffing the sea air from a
distance, rush tumultuously to the fjord, Avhere they take long draughts of the
salted water. This, as the Lapps believe, is essential to their health. As the
summer advances, and the snow melts, they ascend higher and higher into the
mountains. At the approach of winter they retreat into the woods, where,
with the assistance of their dogs and servants, they have enough to do to keep
off the attacks of the wolves. The reindeer dog is about the size of a Scotch
terrier, but his head bears a wonderful resemblance to that of the lynx. His
color varies considerably, but the hair is always long and shaggy. Invaluable
as are his services, he is nevertheless treated with great cruelty.
For their winter journeys the Lapps use sledges or skates. One of their
skates, or " skiders," is usually as long as the person who wears it ; the other is
about a foot shorter. The feet stand in the middle, and to them the skates
are fastened by thongs or Avithes. The skiders are made of fir-wood, and cov-
ered with the skins of young reindeer, which obstruct a retrograde movement
by acting like bristles against the snow — the roots pointing towards the fore
part of the skate, and thus preventing their slipping back. With these skiders,
the Lapj) flies like a bird over the snow, now scaling the mountains by a tortu-
ous ascent, and now darting down into the valley :
Ocior cervis et agente nimbos
Ocior Euro.
Such is the rapidity of his course that he will overtake the swiftest wild
beasts ; and so violent the exercise that, during the most rigorous season of the
year, when earnestly engaged in the chase, he will divest himself of his furs.
A long pole with a round ball of wood near the end, to prevent its piercing too
deep in the snow, serves to stop the skater's course when he wishes to rest.
The Laplander is no less expert in the use of the sledge, or " pulka," which is
made in the form of a small boat with a convex bottom, that it may slide all
the more easily over the snow ; the prow is sharp and pointed, but the sledge is
flat behind. The traveller is swathed in this carriage like an infant in a cradle,
with a stick in his hand to steer the vessel, and disengage it from the stones or
stumps of trees which it may chance to encounter in the route. He must also
balance the sledge w^ith his body, to avoid the danger of being overturned.
The traces by which this carriage is fastened to the reindeer are fixed to a col-
lar about the animal's neck, and run down over the breast between the fore and
hind legs, to be connected with the prow of the sledge ; the reins managed by
the traveller are tied to the horns, and the trappings are furnished with little
bells, the sound of which the animal likes. With this draught at his tail, the
reindeer will tra *^el sixty or seventy English miles in a day ; often persevering
fifty miles without intermission, and without taking any refreshment, except
occasionally moistening his mouth with the snow. His Lapland driver knows
how to find his way through the wilderness with a surprising certainty ; here a
rock, there a fir-tree, is impressed as a landmark on his faithful memory, and
thus, like the best pilot, he steers his sledge to the distant end of his journey.
Frequently the Aurora lights him on his way, illumining the snow-covered
11
163 THE POLAR WORLD.
landscape with a magic brilliancy, and investing every object with a dream-like,
supernatural beauty.
But even without the aid of this mysterious coruscation, Lapland is rich in
grand and picturesque features, and has all the romance of the mountain and
the forest. In summer countless rivulets meander through valleys of alpine
verdure, and broad pellucid rivers rush down the slopes in thundering cataracts,
embracing islands clothed with pine-trees of incomparable dignity and grace.
Whoever has grown up in scenes like these, and been accustomed from infancy
to the uncontrolled freedom of the nomad state, receives impressions never to
be erased ; and thus we can not wonder that' the wild Laplander believes his
country to be a terrestrial paradise, and feels nowhere happy but at home.
In the year 1819 a Scotch gentleman attempted to acclimatize the reindeer
in Scotland, and induced two young Laplanders to accompany the herd Avhich
lie had bought for that purpose. The reindeer soon perished, and the Lap-
landers would have died of nostalgia if they had not been sent home by the first
opportunity. Prince Jablonowsky, a Polish nobleman, Avdio travelled about
thirty years since through a part of Russian Lapland, took a Lapp girl with
him to St. Petersburg. He gave her a superior education, and she was Avell
treated in every respect. She made rapid progress, and seemed to be perfectly
reconciled to her new home. About two years after her arrival, it happened
that a Russian gentleman, who possessed extensive estates near the capital,
bought a small herd of reindeer, which arrived under the guidance of a Lapp
family. As it was winter-time, and these people had brought with them their
tents, their sledges, and their snow-shoes, they soon became objects of curiosity,
and crowds of fashionable visitors flocked to their encampment ; among others,
the good-natured prince, who imprudently conducted his pupil, the young Lap-
land girl, to see her countrymen, an interview which he supposed would give
her great pleasure. But from that moment she became an altered being; she
lost her spirits and her appetite, and, in spite of every care and attention, her
health dechned from day to day. One morning she disappeared, and it was
found on inquiry that she had returned to her family, where she remained ever
after.
Another very remarkable instance of the Laplanders' love of their country
is related by Hogstrom. During the war of Gustavus III. Avith Russia, a
young Laplander enlisted in a regiment Avhich Avas passing through Tornea.
He served in several campaigns as a common soldier, was made a sergeant in
consequence of his good conduct and courage ; and having giA^en himself the
greatest trouble to improve his education and acquire military knowledge, at
length, after tAventy years of service, attained the rank of captain in the SAvedish
army. After this long time spent in the civilized world, and having become ac-
customed to all its enjoyments and comforts, he felt a strong desire to revisit
his family and his country. Scarcely had he seen his native mountains, and
spent a fcAV days among his countrymen and the reindeer, than he at once quit-
ted the service, and resumed the nomad life of his youth.
The Laplander's chief desire is for peace and tranquillity. Exposed to all
the privations of a vagrant life, and to every inclemency of Aveatlier, he endures
THE LAPPS. 163
the greatest hardships with equanimity, desiring only not to be disturbed in the
enjoyment of the Httle that is his — not to be interfered with in his old customs
and habits.
Yet this same peaceful Laplander, who has so easily submitted to a foreign
yoke, is one of the boldest hunters, and not only pursues the elk or the wild
reindeer, but engages in single combat with the bear. Like all the other Arctic
nations of Russia and Siberia, he has strange notions about this animal, which
in his opinion is the most cunning and gifted of all created beings. Thus he
supposes that the bear knows and hears all that is said about him, and for this
reason he takes good care never to speak of him disrespectfully. It may seem
strange that he should venture to slay an animal which ranks so high in his es-
teem ; but the temptation is too strong, as its flesh has an excellent flavor, and
its fur, though not near so valuable as that of the American black bear, is still
worth from fifteen to twenty dollars.
At the beginning of winter, the bear, as is well known, retires either into a
rocky cave, or under a cover of branches, leaves, and moss, and remains thei-e
without food, and plunged in sleep until the next spring recalls hina to a more
active existence. After the first fall of snow, the Lapp hunters go into the for-
est and look out for traces of the bear. Having found them, they carefully
mark the spot, and returning after a few Aveeks disturb the slumbering brute,
and excite him to an attack. It is not considered honorable to shoot him
while sleeping ; and in many parts of Lapland the-hunter who would kill a bear
with any other weapon but a lance would be universally despised. Hogguer
accompanied two Lapps, well-armed with axes and stout lances with barbed
points, on one of these bear-hunts. "When about a hundred paces from the
lair the company halted, while one of the Lapps advanced shouting, telling his
comrades to make as much noise as they could. When about twenty paces
from the cavern, he stood still and flung several stones into it. For some time
all was quiet, so that Hogguer began to fear that the lair was deserted, M'hen
suddenly an angry growl Avas heard. The hunters now redoubled their clamor,
until slowly, like an honest citizen disturbed in his noonday slumbers, the bear
came out of his cavern. But this tranquillity did not last long, for the brute, as
soon as he perceived his nearest enemy, uttered a short roar and rushed upon
him. The Lapp coolly awaited the onset with his lance in rest, until the bear,
coming quite near, raised himself on his haunches and began to strike at him
with his fore paws. The hunter bent down to avoid the strokes, and then sud-
denly rising, with a sure eye and with all his might, plunged his lance into the
heart of the bear. During this short conflict the Lapp had received a slight
wound on the hand, but the marks of the bear's teeth were found deeply im-
pressed upon the iron of the lance. According to an ancient custom, the wives
of the hunters assemble in the hut of one of them ; and as soon as they hear the
i-eturning sportsmen, begin chanting or howling a song in praise of the bear.
When the men, laden with the skin and flesh of the animal, approach, they are re-
ceived by the women with opprobrious epithets, and forbidden ingress through
the door; so that they are obliged to make a hole in the wall, through wliich
they enter with their spoils. This comedy, which is meant to pacify tlie man
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