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MUSEUM OF VICTORIA
ALINE
14980
THE LANDS OF SILENCE
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
C. F. CLAY, MANnaGER
LONDON : FETTER LANE, E.C. ¢
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN CO,
BOMBAY
CALCUTTA } MACMILLAN AND CO., Ltp.
MADRAS | :
TORONTO : THE MACMILLAN CO. OF
CANADA, Lrtp.
TOKYO: MARUZEN-KABUSHIKI-KAISHA
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
her ( pies ‘J 2 Md. arkham. we G “¢ ; i cy R : °).
pointed by é Georg €. Jas TY — 4. Ge. A.
LANDS OF SILENCE
A HISTORY OF ARCTIC
AND ANTA® “TIC EXPLORATION
BY
$i& CLEM NTS R. MARKHAM,
K.C.B., F.R.S.
CAMBRIDGE.
&Y dE UNIVERSITY PRESS
192%
¢? > 4 ¥
, x t. » ‘ 7
Orr ULementa XP eo f Fe
*
LANDS OF SILENCE
A HISTORY OF ARCTIC
AND ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION
BY
SIR CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM,
KG. Boek
CAMBRIDGE
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
19 2.1
PREBACE
ALTHOUGH there were few subjects in which the late Sir
Clements Markham was not interested, it may safely be
said that Polar Exploration stood nearest his heart. Not
many persons had studied the ground as thoroughly as
he; no one was more widely acquainted with its explorers.
I was anxious therefore that his recollections of the
personality and work of the many distinguished Arctic
navigators he had known should not be lost, and some
years ago suggested to him that he should record the story
of the gradual revealing of the Polar regions to our ken.
The idea pleased him, he began his task at once, and when,
in January 1916, the sad accident occurred which brought
his life unexpectedly to a close, the book, though unrevised,
and with one or two chapters unfinished, was nevertheless
in a tolerably complete state.
The author’s death would necessarily have delayed the
appearance of the work, but the prolonging of the war
caused it to be laid aside altogether, and it was not until
the beginning of this year that I took it in hand with the
object of completing it for publication. So numerous are
the works which have been consulted by the author that it
was of course impossible for me to verify his facts and dates
throughout, and the indulgence of the reader is therefore
asked for any errors he may chance to notice. For
Chapters Lx and LxI, and a great part of Chapter xxxrIv,
which were merely outlined or left unfinished, the present
writer is mainly responsible.
Between Sir Clements and his no less distinguished
cousin, Sir Albert Markham, a life-long friendship existed,
and the latter did not long survive him, dying soon after
he had published his biography. I was fortunate enough,
a3
vi Preface
however, before he passed away, to obtain his kindly aid
in reading the proofs of this volume, which, owing to his
great knowledge of Arctic matters, quite apart from his
own wide personal experiences of Arctic travel, was of no
little value. The writer would desire here to render his
affectionate tribute to the memory of a friend whose
charming personality will long be recalled by all those who
had the privilege of knowing him.
In the revision of Scott’s journeys I have had the in-
valuable assistance of Mr Frank Debenham, Fellow of
Gonville and Caius College, geologist to Capt. Scott’s last
expedition, to whom my very grateful thanks are due. To
Mr Edward Heawood, Librarian of the Royal Geographical
Society, the reader is indebted for the helpful chronological
table and bibliography at the end of the volume; and,
finally, I have to thank Mr H. A. Parsons, of the Cambridge
University Press, for his most efficient assistance in com-
piling the index.
F. H. H. GUILLEMARD.
CAMBRIDGE,
October, 1920.
CONTENTS
PART I
PAGE
THE ARCTIC REGIONS . 5 : : 3
. ICE AND ICEBERGS 3 ; ; : 7
. TRIBES AROUND THE POLE ; . ; 13
5 LUNE IUCR ADI BROUU IE 3 F < ‘ 26
FIRST CROSSING OF THE THRESHOLD : 30
. THE NORSEMEN IN GREENLAND : : 38
. NICHOLAS OF LYNN. ZENO. MEDIEVAL NAU-
TICAL INSTRUMENTS : . 53
. FIRST ENGLISH VOYAGES TO THE NORTH-
EAST. WILLOUGHBY. CHANCELLOR. BUR-
ROUGH esse : : é : 58
. BARENTSZ. LINSCHOTEN. DE VEER . : 68
. SIR MARTIN FROBISHER ‘ ; : 81
. JOHN DAVIS : en F : 93
. THE MERCHANT ADVENTURERS AND RICHARD
HAKLUYT : ‘ : : . To4
. GREENLAND VOYAGE OF HALL AND BAFFIN | 112
. EARLY SPITSBERGEN VOYAGES , ately,
. EARLY VOYAGES TO HUDSON’S BAY . 3 1X8)
. WILLIAM BAFFIN . . : : 5 aS
. JENS ERIKSEN MUNK. FOXE AND JAMES.
WOOD . : 4 : : > Taiko)
. HANS EGEDE AND DANISH GREENLAND LSS:
. THE HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY. HEARNE AND
MACKENZIE, COOK AND PHIPPS . OS
. RUSSIAN ARCTIC DISCOVERIES : = ail
. THE BRITISH WHALE FISHERY AND THE
SCORESBYS . ; : 3 eersS
. BUCHAN AND ROSS : : : - 198
. PARRY AND HIS SCHOOL 5 : e205;
Vili
CHAP,
XXIV.
ARV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
XXIX.
XXX.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXII.
XXXIV.
XXXV.
XXXVI.
XXXVIT.
XXXVI.
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLII.
XLIV.
Contents
DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH COAST OF AMERICA.
FRANKLIN. RICHARDSON. BACK. DEASE.
SIMPSON. RAE
JOHN ROSS, JAMES ROSS, AND THE NORTH
MAGNETIC POLE : :
THE FRANKLIN EXPEDITION
THE SEARCH FOR FRANKLIN. I
THE SEARCH FOR FRANKLIN. II
DISCOVERY OF THE FATE OF FRANKLIN
THE EAST COAST OF GREENLAND. SCORESBY.
CLAVERING. GRAAH. KOLDEWEY
SPITSBERGEN. EXPEDITIONS BEFORE 1872
FRANZ JOSEF LAND AND ITS EXPLORERS
THE ROUTE BY SMITH SOUND. KANE. HAYES.
HALL. NARES. MARKHAM
SIR ALLEN YOUNG AND THE PANDORA.
AMUNDSEN AND THE NORTH WEST PAS-
SAGE
WEYPRECHT’S PLAN FOR SYNCHRONOUS
OBSERVATIONS. THE GREELY EXPEDI-
TION
THE NORTH EAST PASSAGE. NORDENSKIOLD.
WIGGINS. DE LONG .
GREENLAND AND ITS INLAND ICE. NORDEN-
SKIOLD, NANSEN, PEARY
THE TRANS-POLAR DRIFT. NANSEN AND THE
VOYAGE OF THE FRAM
THE PARRY ARCHIPELAGO. SVERDRUP
ATTEMPTS TO REACH THE NORTH POLE.
CAGNI. COOK. PEARY
KOOLEMANS BEYNEN AND THE VOYAGES OF
THE WILLEM BARENTSZ. SIR MARTIN
CONWAY AND SPITSBERGEN. CAPTAIN
BERNIER AND CANADIAN ARCTIC LANDS
EAST COAST OF GREENLAND. DANISH EX-
PEDITIONS é ; ‘ ;
LATER GREENLAND EXPLORATIONS. MIK-
KELSEN. RASMUSSEN. KOCH
CONCLUSION
PAGE
223
233
238
248
263
272
279
285
289
298
311
316
322
331
340
347
352
358
364
376
383
CHAP.
XLV.
XLVI.
XLVII.
XLVITI.
XLIX.
L.
LI.
LEXY.
Contents
PART II
THE GREAT SOUTHERN CONTINENT
CAPTAIN COOK. BELLINGSHAUSEN
THE SOUTH SHETLANDS. FOSTER. WEDDELL
ENDERBY AND HIS CAPTAINS: BISCOE—
KEMPE—BALLENY
DUMONT D’URVILLE AND WILKES
FIRST ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES ROSS
SECOND ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES
ROSS ‘
. THIRD ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES ROSS
. ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY
. REVIVAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION
4 TEARS IWMI) EXPEDITIONS—BORCHGREVINK.
GERLACHE. NORDENSKIOLD. BRUCE.
DRYGALSKI. CHARCOT. FILCHNER
. PREPARATIONS FOR THE SOCIETIES’ ANT-
ARCTIC EXPEDITION
. THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
FIRST YEAR
. THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
THE MORNING
. THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION.
SECOND YEAR
SHACKLETON’S ATTEMPT TO REACH THE POLE
. AMUNDSEN’S JOURNEY TO THE SOUTH POLE
. MAWSON’S EXPEDITION .
. CAPTAIN SCOTT’S LAST EXPEDITION. I.
. CAPTAIN SCOTT’S LAST EXPEDITION. THE
END < F :
REMAINING ANTARCTIC WORK
CHRONOLOGY OF POLAR VOYAGES AND EXPLORA-
TIONS
BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POLAR VOYAGES AND
TRAVELS
INDEX
433
444
4D)
466
471
478
482
486
489
500
595
599
514
519
MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS
PORTRAIT OF SIR CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, by George
Henry, A.R.A. (Photogravure by Mr Emery Walker from a
photograph by Messrs Cooper and Humphreys) 5 F FRONTISPIECE
MAP OF THE POLAR REGIONS . ; r BETWEEN PAGES 4 AND 5
EFFECTS OF PRESSURE ON ANTARCTIC ICE. (From Scott’s
Voyage of the Discovery) : 7 5 , bE . TO FACE PAGE
INTERIOR OF GREENLAND HUT) (pieaey fra Gronland
GREENLANDERS DANCING cae ae ee »
id
22
VIKING SHIP. (Phot. O. Vaering) > m3)
THE SOUTH-WESTERN EXTREMITY OF GREENLAND - PAGE 40
RUINS IN KINGOA-DAL, SOUTH GREENLAND . , : » 48
THE ZENI MAP. (Based on the facsimile in Voyages of the Zent,
Hakluyt Society, 1873) ; 3 3 £ : : » 54
ASTROLABE IN GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAM-
BRIDGE (EARLY 14ra CENTURY). (Venn, Biographical
History of Gonville and Caius College, vol. IV.) di . TO FACE PAGE 57
WILLEM BARENTSZ. (De Vries, Oud-Holland) A é - PAGE 69
NOVAYA ZEMLYA, SHOWING ENTRANCES TO KARA SEA 3 OE
“A WONDER IN THE HEAVENS, AND HOW WE CAUGHT A
BEAR.” (De Bry, India Orientalis, 1599) Lb . : : ye aS
“HOW OUR SHIP STUCK FAST IN THE ICE.” (De Bry) . eure
PART OF HONDIUS’S MAP OF 1611, SHOWING BARENTSZ’S
DISCOVERIES . - 4 ‘ ; ; A : : » 77
“THE EXACT MANNER OF THE HOUSE WHEREIN WE
WINTERED.” (De Bry) . 5 A 4 : ay 99;
RELICS FROM BARENTSZ’S HUT. (From the National Museum,
Amsterdam, by kind permission of the Directorate). . TO FACE PAGE 79
SIR MARTIN FROBISHER. (Holland, Heroologia, 1620) A ag es
FROBISHER’S DISCOVERIES . ‘ . . e - PAGE 87
THE VOYAGES OF JOHN DAVIS. . . ° ‘ ‘ On
MEMORIAL TABLET TO RICHARD HAKLUYT IN BRISTOL
CATHEDRAL . é “ . : < é . TO FACE PAGE III
PART OF NORTH-WEST SPITSBERGEN - “ . . PAGE 120
Maps and Illustrations xi
SIR THOMAS BUTTON . é dj : : . TO FACE PAGE 136
BAFFIN’S MAP OF HUDSON STRAIT . t 2 : - PAGE 139
BAFFIN’S DISCOVERIES A , ; 3 : - » 144
CAPTAIN THOMAS JAMES. (From CAG? e Foxe and cat
Hakluyt Society, 1894) b ye 153
PART OF FOXE’S MAP, 1635. F ' i : és : 4, SS
HUDSON BAY 3 : < ; ‘ 6 : . . js 1107
ALEXANDER MACKENZIE. (From the engraving by Condé, after
Lawrence) . 5 . : 2 . TO FACE PAGE 169
BERING’S VOYAGE FROM KAMSCHATKA TO NORTH
AMERICA. (Synge, A Book of Discovery) .- * X . PAGE 178
NORTH-EASTERN SIBERIA AND NORTH-WESTERN SIBERIA HSE
THE PARRY ISLANDS . 3 é “ : F i Pe EZLO
SIR JOHN FRANKLIN . é 4 5 . ‘ - TO FACE PAGE 239
FACSIMILE OF FRANKLIN EXPEDITION RECORD. (M’Clin-
tock, Fate of Franklin) . . . . . . » PAGE 244
CRITICAL POSITION OF H.M.S. INVESTIGATOR ON THE
NORTH COAST OF BARING ISLAND, AUG. 20TH, 1851.
(Colour sketch by S. Gurney Cresswell) . * ‘ . TO FACE PAGE 264
LIEUT CRESSWELL’S PARTY SLEDGING OVER HUMMOCKY
ICE. (Colour sketch by 5S. Gurney Cresswell) . é . 7 ee OD:
JULIUS PAYER . 4 ‘ f . 5 5 ‘ Ys oy 290
LIEUT PARR, R.N., H.M.S. Alert. (Phot. Maull & Co.)
COMMANDER A. H. MARKHAM, R.N., H.M.S. dat
(Phot. Elliott & Fry)
SIR GEORGE NARES. (Phot. J. Griffin & Co.)
LIEUT P. ALDRICH, R.N., H.M.S. Alert. (Phot. F. John-
son)
LIEUT L. A. BEAUMONT, H.M.S. Discovery. (Phot.
Elliott & Fry)
SUB-LIEUT GEORGE LE CLERC EGERTON, RN.
(Phot. Elliott & Fry) fy rE 300
| a ae 302
)
LIEUT WYATT RAWSON, R.N. (Phot. Maull & Co.)
THE PANDORA (CAPTAIN ALLEN YOUNG) IN PEEL
STRAIT 3 ‘ : : : is 4 f : F ne She
ADOLF ERIK NORDENSKIOLD . . : 5 . ” 1 332
EAST COAST OF GREENLAND. (Based on map in Mikkelsen,
Lost in the Arctic) : : co 7. ‘ P y Ry HB ls
Xl Maps and Illustrations
GREENLAND . 5 : “ b : 3 : : . PAGE 377
ORTELIUS’ MAP OF THE WORLD : : ( : : » 391
GRAHAM LAND AND SOUTH SHETLANDS . : . 4 » 399
MT EREBUS FROM THE SOUTH, (From Scott’s Voyage of the
Discovery) . 0 . : . 4 : : . TO FACE PAGE 416
ADELIE PENGUINS | (From Scott’s Voy- ee
EMPEROR PENGUIN WITH CHICK ) %8¢ ofthe Discovery " =”
CHASM SEPARATING ICE AND LAND IN LAT. 82°S.
(From Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery) . 3 4 : A dos
THE MORNING. (From Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery) . BS » 466
TYPICAL LOOSE PACK—MT MELBOURNE IN DIS-
TANCE. (From Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery) . : 3 », 480
A TILTED BERG, SHOWING THE
OLD SURFACE INCLINED TO
THE LEFT (From Scott’s Voyage
of the Discovery) as one
TYPICAL BERGS—TERRA NOVA
IN DISTANCE
EMPEROR PENGUIN ROOKERY, CAPE CROZIER.
(From Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery) . 5 és & a nee 2SY
BARRIER BERG AGROUND OFF KING EDWARD VII
LAND. (From Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery) 5 ‘ oy Og
Acknowledgement is due to Messrs Smith, Elder & Co. and Mr John Murray
for permission to reproduce the illustrations from Scott’s Voyage of the Discovery;
to Mr John Murray for permission to reproduce the facsimile of the Franklin
Expedition Record; also to Mr William Heinemann for leave to use the map in
Mikkelsen’s Lost in the Arctic, to Messrs T. C. & E. C. Jack for the block from
Synge’s A Book of Discovery, and to the Hakluyt Society for the portrait of
Thomas James.
ERRATUM
Pp. 100, line 4 from bottom:
for Sunrise vead Sunshine
PAR LT
CHAPTER I
THE ARCTIC REGIONS
Tue history of the Polar Regions, of those vast
areas, difficult of access, which include millions of square
miles of land and ocean at either extreme of our planet,
is of surpassing interest and importance. It is not only
that we here meet with examples of heroism and devotion
which must entrance mankind for all time. It is not
only that there are dangers to be encountered and
difficulties to be overcome which call forth the best
qualities of our race. These, no doubt, are the main
reasons for the deep interest which polar exploration has
always excited. But there are others of almost equal
importance. These regions offer great scientific problems.
They present wide fields of research in almost all depart-
ments of knowledge. They have in the past yielded vast
wealth, and have been the sources of commercial prosperity
to many communities, and they may be so again. Their
history is a history of noble and persevering effort; ex-
tending over a thousand years in the Arctic where the
work is well-nigh finished, but only just beginning in the
Antarctic regions, where it will have to be completed by
our descendants.
In approaching the subject it is well to have before
our minds the extent of these great areas, the history of
which we would grasp and understand. At the polar
circle, which is 1410 geographical miles from the centre,
they have a periphery of 8460 miles, and each includes
6,000,000 square miles. The Arctic and Antarctic circles
are in 66° 32’ North and South, but these parallels are
merely conventional. It is more convenient, as will be
seen hereafter, to take the Polar regions as beginning
at about the 7oth parallel, the Sub-arctic and Sub-
I>
4 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
antarctic regions extending from 60° to 70°, a zone in which
the fauna is richer and more varied.
The’ division of these polar regions into quadrants is
useful because it facilitates geographical description and
impresses the relative positions of the different parts on
the mind. In the Arctic regions a line may be drawn
from the Lofoten Islands to Bering Strait, with another
crossing it from the head of Hudson’s Bay to Cape
Chelyuskin; thus forming four quadrants.
At the present day a fringe of coast lines forming
the northern shores of the three great continents, with
a deep interior polar sea, are the main features of the
Arctic regions, but it was not always so. Looking back
into remote geological periods, we have evidence of
marvellous changes in the Arctic regions since the globe
was a gradually cooling mass of vapour. In this process,
extending over vast ages, the polar regions must have
been, as they are now, cooler than the equatorial regions,
and for the same reason. It was, therefore, in the polar
regions that life first became possible, and here the life
of the Silurian age arose. There is evidence of a continent
in Jurassic and Tertiary (Miocene) times where now there
is a polar ocean of great depth, save where Spitsbergen
and Franz Josef Land exist as the sole remaining fragments
of that continent. There is evidence that forests once
flourished where now nothing higher than the dwarf
willow can exist. There is evidence, too, of tremendous
volcanic eruptions, covering great areas with sheets of
basalt. In contemplating these mighty revolutions, and
the gradual changes through long eons of ages, the
leading fact connected with the polar regions is that
here life first became possible. Here it was first possible
that man could exist. The evidence that the arboreal
vegetation of the miocene period originated round the
north pole appears to be quite conclusive. The ex-
ploration of the Arctic area has disclosed proofs of
wondrous secular changes which no imagination, however
vivid, could surpass. Alike in the far south, as in the
far north, there is food for the imagination—lights thrown
here and there on the history of a marvellous past. Such
speculations are a fitting introduction to a study of the
existing state of things, which has lasted through the
REL iNorth Water
CHANNEL
Sp
LWAMES. LANCASTER
< Sanderson’,
Hare ,
island:~
ax.
Cockayne: Sound
HUDSON
BAY
ne
“6. Farewell
mL, a gta -g
eS Gok
SSS
ye.
Baffin’s Discoveries.
and the crew, on their return, reported that they saw
many sea horses, but no signs of people. This was the
only landing that was effected in the north part of the
bay. On the r2th July the Discovery was off another
great opening in 74° 20’ N. which was called ‘‘ Sir James
Lancaster’s Sound.”
CH. XvI| William Baffin 145
Baffin concluded that all the openings were bays.
He was right as regards Wolstenholme and Whale Sounds.
But those named after Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Francis
Jones, and Sir James Lancaster are channels leading to
the Polar Ocean, not sounds.
In returning south the Discovery had to run through
much ice, and Baffin was never able to reach the land
on the west side, which he was anxious to do, so as to
obtain green food for the sick, for scurvy had attacked
them. Richard Wayman, the cook, died on the 26th
July, and Master Herbert!, with two or three others,
was very ill. So Baffin stood over to the Greenland
side, and reaching Cockayne Sound on the 28th an
abundant supply of scurvy grass, sorrel, and orpine was
gathered, while the natives brought salmon peel to
barter. The scurvy grass was boiled in beer, and made
into salads with sorrel. In a week all were restored to
health, and on the 6th August, 1616, they were homeward
bound. The Irish coast was sighted on the 25th, and
on the 30th the Discovery anchored in Dover roads.
Purchas has printed the brief narrative of Baffin, and
his very interesting letter to Sir John Wolstenholme in
which he says that though there is no passage by Baffin’s
Bay, voyages might be profitable from the whalebone
and oil, the seal-skins, and the walrus and narwhal ivory.
In this he was right, and his discovery led to the annual
acquisition of wealth for many years.
We only have in Purchas the Briefe and True Relation
and the letter to Sir John Wolstenholme; but in the
Relation Baffin says, “all these sounds and islands the
map doth truly describe.’”’ We are then treated to the
following exasperating note by Purchas, “‘ This map of
the author, with the tables of his journal ” (the tabulated
log) “and sailing were somewhat troublesome and too
costly to insert.” The mischief done by the loss to
posterity of these precious documents endured for two
centuries. It led to such confusion in the ideas of map-
makers that at last the very existence of Baffin’s Bay
was doubted. On the map of Luke Foxe (1635) it is
1 T have not been successful in my attempts to discover who Master
Herbert was. He was probably a gentleman volunteer,
M. I. Io
146
. 2. SS
. Op fF zs =
oer S a
Get 2 oe
cu.xxvi] Zhe Search for Franklin. 11, 265
being for some time in great danger. The squadron reached
Beechey Island August 14th, where the North Star was to
remain as a depot ship. Next day the two divisions parted
company. The Assistance and Pioneer proceeded up Wel-
lington Channel to winter in a harbour in 77°52’ N., while
the Resolute and Intrepid went on to Melville Island with
little difficulty, where they found winter quarters in a
bay sheltered by Dealy Isle, so named after a midshipman
of the Hecla, in 74°50’ N.
We must pause here fora moment to record a modest
but successful expedition carried out in the same season
of 1852 by Captain Inglefield, who in the little Isabel,
piloted by wonderful old Abernethy, went for a summer
cruise up Baffin’s Bay. He reached the entrance of Smith
Sound and saw that it was an important channel leading
to the polar ocean—really Smith Channel. To the land
-on the west side, which was discovered by Baffin but not
named by him, he gave the name of Ellesmere Island.
M’Clintock decided upon a system of autumn travelling
for laying out depots on a much larger scale than in the
previous expedition. This time he was absent 40 days,
and went over 260 miles. Four other autumn travelling
parties laid out depots, Mecham doing 212 miles in 25 days,
Vesey Hamilton 84 miles in 16 days. Mecham made a
very important discovery. He found a record left by
Captain M’Clure of the Investigator on Parry’s sandstone
rock, in the spring of 1852. M’Clure gave the position
of the ship in the Bay of Mercy, and added that if the
Investigator was not again heard of, she would probably
have been carried into the polar pack west of Melville
Island, in which case any attempt to succour him would
be useless—a very noble thing for a man in his position
to have written.
The plan for sledge travelling in the spring was that
M’Clintock was to explore as far as possible to the north
and west, Mecham to the west, and Vesey Hamilton to
the north. On March roth a sledge was sent to com-
municate with the Investigator in the Bay of Mercy, a
distance of 160 miles.
M’Clintock’s two large sledges, when loaded, weighed
2000 lb., or 228 Ib. per man on starting. Of the sledge
crew of 1851 Salmon was still well and hearty. George
266 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Green, ice quartermaster, was captain of the sledge, an
excellent man; Henry Giddy, boatswain’s mate, was almost
equally good. May 4th, 1853, wasa day to be remembered,
the beginning of the greatest sledge journey but one on
record. The sledges were drawn up in two lines with
their banners displayed, and started. M’Clintock and
his depdt sledge advanced over the land to Cape Nias.
Mecham and Nares went away under sail to the westward,
with a fair wind.
M’Clintock and De Bray, a young French naval officer
lent to the expedition, proceeded with the depdt sledge
along the north coast to Cape Fisher, the extreme point seen
by Parry. Here De Bray and the depdt sledge returned,
while M’Clintock turned south to make sure of connecting
his work with that of Mecham. He travelled along the
west coast of Melville Island and considered that it pre-
sented the most beautiful Arctic scenery he had ever seen.
A great unknown land had long been in sight to the west-
ward to which he gave the name of Prince Patrick Island.
It was on May 14th, 1853, that M’Clintock landed on his
new discovery at Point Wilkie, named after his old sledge
captain, and geologically a place of great importance, as
exhibiting a patch of lias formation with fossils. The
north end of Prince Patrick Island was reached on the
11th June, and M’Clintock went on to some islands which
he named the Polynia Isles. In the offing there was a line
of very heavy pack ice, with hummocks 35 ft. high.
The most northern point reached was 77° 43’, and here,
sending back the sledge to the depot, the explorer
proceeded down the western coast with a satellite sledge
over flat sand-banks, with a continuous line of stupendous
hummocks in the offing. They rejoined the parent sledge
on the 25th June. M’Clintock’s next discovery was named
Emerald Isle, most of the usual Arctic plants and abun-
dant moss being found on it. The return journey entailed
terrible work owing to the water on the floes.
M’Clintock had been away 105 days and the sledge
had gone over 1030 geographical miles in gg marches, at
a rate of 104 miles a day.
The examination of bays and inlets with the satellite
sledge amounted to 624 miles, making the whole distance
I2I0 geographical or 1408 statute miles. The lowest
cu. xxviu] Zhe Search for Franklin. 1/. 267
temperature was —24° Fahr. ; the number of positions fixed
was 22. This journey was by far the greatest Arctic effort
with sledges that has ever been made by men alone.
Mecham did splendid work to the eastward. Nares?
commanded the depdét sledge, and Mecham’s sledge cap-
tain was James Tullett, a capital sailor, who was in
the Assistance. Travelling over the south-west part of
Melville Island Mecham crossed a strait, and discovered
an island which received the name of Eglinton, where
Nares left the depot and returned. Another journey
across a strait brought Mecham to the south-west point
of Prince Patrick Island. He then explored its southern
and western coasts until he reached a point within
16 miles of M’Clintock’s furthest, coming from the
north. Mecham’s principal discovery was the remains of
trees. At Cape Manning, on the south coast, there were
a considerable number of stems of trees with the bark
on, 90 feet above the sea. Returning, Mecham crossed
the land during the three last days of May and found,
in a ravine, a tree protruding 8 feet, and several others
with a circumference of 4 feet.
The young explorer then connected his work with that
of M’Clintock on the east side of Prince Patrick Island,
thus making these vast discoveries complete. He got
plenty of fresh food for his people, killing four musk oxen,
seven reindeer, sixteen hares, forty ptarmigan, twelve
ducks and geese, and two plover. He was absent gi days,
and went over 1006 geographical or 1173 statute miles,
thus averaging 124 miles a day. His discoveries amounted
to 785 miles of new country.
Vesey Hamilton explored the northern extremity of
Melville Island, called the Sabine Peninsula, starting on
the 27th April with a seven-man sledge and a satellite
sledge. The captain of his sledge was Ice-Quartermaster
George Murray, who had served in both the expeditions
of Ross and Austin. He was a seaman of long experience
and great ability, with literary talent of no mean order,
as his contributions to the Aurora Borealis show. Having
explored the whole eastern side of Melville Island,
Hamilton crossed the channel with his satellite and two
1 Mate in the Resolute, then aged 22, afterwards Sir George Nares, K.C.B.,
died January, 1915.
268 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
men to Bathurst Island, where he met Sherard Osborn, who
had explored the northern side of this island with its two
deep inlets, and sighted another large island to the north
which was named after Mr Findlay, the cartographer.
Hamilton then returned to his main sledge, and reaching
the extreme northern point of the Sabine Peninsula,
discovered two islands which were named Vesey Hamilton
and Markham after his old messmates in the Assistance.
He returned to the ship after an absence of 54 days,
having covered 663 statute miles, and made some inter-
esting discoveries. This completed the extensive explora-
tions of 1853, comprising 1800 miles of coast line.
The officers and crew of the Investigator had been
rescued from the fate of Franklin and his people by
Mecham’s discovery of M’Clure’s record. On the arrival
of the sledge with the good news at the Bay of Mercy,
Captain M’Clure travelled to the Resolute to discuss
arrangements with Captain Kellett. It was determined
to abandon the Investigator, officers and crew being housed
on board the Resolute and Intrepid. Thus was a third
North West Passage discovered.
Lieut. Cresswell of the Investigator with 26 officers
and men were despatched to the North Stay at Beechey
Island to be sent home at the first opportunity. The
Admiralty had sent out the Phoenix, commanded by
Captain Inglefield, and the Breadalbane transport, under
Mr Fawckner, Master R.N., to communicate. The Bread-
albane was crushed by the ice off Beechey Island and
sank. Captain Inglefield had brought out with him
Lieut. Bellot, the young French officer who had been
with Kennedy. Most unfortunately the ice floe on which
. he was, with some men, got adrift. It was never known
exactly what happened, but he must have slipped off the
ice and was drowned. Lieut. Cresswell and his party went
home in the Phoenix.
Mindful of the possibility that Captain Collinson might
reach Melville Island in the Enterprise, Captain Kellett
built a large house, 40 feet by 14, of stone with a wooden
roof covered with painted canvas, in which a depét was
placed of seven months’ provisions for sixty men, and a
cairn was built on Dealy Island, 42 tons of stone being
used in its construction.
aor AyouruNyY 19A0 Surspajs Aj1ed sjamssei_g yer]
Ss F
> . "
. j
cu. xxvil] Zhe Search for Franklin. L/. 269
In August, 1853, the Resolute and Intrepid broke out
of winter quarters, but it was an ice-encumbered season,
and by November 11th the two vessels were again fixed
in winter quarters 26 miles S.W. of Cape Cockburn on
Bathurst Island. The Assistance and Pioneer had also
left their winter quarters at the west end of Grinnell Land
(a prolongation of North Devon) and had attempted to
come down Wellington Channel. They too, however, had
been stopped by the ice, and had to winter 52 miles north
of Beechey Island.
The winter passed happily enough on board the
Resolute and Intrepid, but 1t was necessary to report to
Sir Edward Belcher, and Hamilton was accordingly des-
patched with two men and a team of nine dogs. He
brought back an order to abandon the ships. It was not
explicit, however, and it assumed that Captain Kellett
was of the same mind. M’Clintock then returned and
tried to persuade Sir Edward Belcher not to commit
what amounted to a crime. He told the intending
perpetrator that there was every reason to expect that
the ships would get clear, but the only result was an
explicit order to abandon them!
It was mainly during these journeys that M’Clintock
gained his experience in the use of dogs. He covered
the distance from the Resolute to the North Star in five
days, and the 52 miles thence to the Assistance in 24 hours.
The whole distance there and back was 460 miles, occu-
pying 15 days, an average of 31 miles per day. Wrangell,
on the coast of Siberia, made an average of 29 miles a
day for 22 days. M’Clintock had one man with him, and a
team of twelve dogs. He found that two dogs require the
same weight of food as one man, and when properly fed
and not overworked, a dog can draw a man’s full load for
a distance about one-fourth greater than a man would.
If both man and dog are lightly laden, a dog will double
the distance which the man could do. The final con-
clusion was that for a very long period and a very long
distance men are superior to dogs. At their best, dogs
should be well fed and well treated, and should not be
over-worked. Then they are invaluable for keeping up
communications to distances not exceeding 300 miles.
Belcher’s disgraceful order had to be obeyed. He
270 8Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTI
intended to crowd all four crews on board the North Star,
but luckily Captain Inglefield arrived in the Phoenix with
the old frigate Talbot, so that there was little crowding.
The court martial was obliged to acquit Belcher because
his instructions gave him such wide discretion, but his
sword was returned in a silence more damning than words.
Sherard Osborn, whom Belcher had placed under arrest,
and Lieut. May, against whom he had reported, were both
immediately promoted.
The ships would almost certainly have got free later
in the season. The Resolute actually did drift out, was
picked up by an American vessel in Davis Strait, and
courteously restored by the United States to our
Admiralty.
These three search expeditions effected an enormous
increase in the knowledge of the Arctic regions. Thousands
of miles of unknown lands were brought to light, and the
diligent collecting and observations of officers enabled a
good general idea to be formed of the geology of the
newly-discovered region and of the tidal phenomena. The
discoveries also opened a new area for exploration to the
westward quite distinct from the region of the Parry
Islands. Like all great discoveries Prince Patrick Island
pointed to further research. It is the complete examina-
tion of the area now known as the Beaufort Sea which
M’Clintock’s discoveries indicate. Meanwhile the great
sledge journeys stand alone and unapproached.
Mecham’s final sledge journey was perhaps the most
brilliant achievement. Accompanied by Krabbé, Master
of the Intrepid, he started with two good sledge crews on
April 3rd, 1854. Advancing to Cape Providence they
entered the first range of heavy hummocks, and forced
their way through it for five miles. As they approached
Banks Island they were constantly entangled during
dense fogs among intricate hummocks and deep snow.
On reaching the land Krabbé parted company for the Bay
of Mercy, in order to report on the condition of the
Investigator. He found her heeling over and with her
orlops full of ice, and she no doubt sank soon afterwards.
He was five days landing all her stores and provisions.
Mecham proceeded down Prince of Wales Strait, and
arrived at Princess Royal Island on May 4th. There he
cu. xxvill] Zhe Search for Franklin. II. 271
found a document stating that further information would
be found on an island in 72° 36’ N., and pushing on,
found this second document. He then began his return
journey, heard of the abandonment of the vessels, and
went on to Beechey Island. In 70 days Mecham had
travelled 1157 geographical, or 1336 statute miles, the
average rate outwards being 184 miles, and homewards
23% miles a day. M’Clintock wrote—‘‘Mecham’s journey
is a most splendid feat, topping all previous ones in speed
as well as distance.”
Frederick Mecham was promoted to the rank of Com-
mander on the 21st October, 1854. A thorough seaman
and navigator, a good officer, and an excellent messmate,
he was endowed with indomitable pluck and the gift of
communicating his enthusiasm to those who served under
him. Musical, an actor, a good artist, and well informed,
_he was foremost in the work of keeping the men amused
during the winter. His consideration for others and his
charming manners endeared him alike to officers and men,
and his sledge crews were devoted to him. Mecham was
appointed to the Vixen on the Pacific station, and died
at Honolulu on February 16th, 1858, at the early age of
twenty-nine, a great loss to the navy and to his country.
His Arctic achievements still remain unapproached.
CHAPTER XxXIxX
DISCOVERY OF THE FATE OF FRANKLIN
THE Crimean War broke out in 1854, and public
attention was absorbed by it. On March 23rd of that
year the names of Sir John Franklin and his officers were
removed from the Navy list, but not without a protest
from Lady Franklin. Suddenly, only four months later,
some startling news arrived. Dr Rae of the Hudson’s Bay
Company reported on July roth that, during a journey
to survey the west coast of Boothia, he met some Eskimos
in Pelly Bay who said that, some years before, they had
seen about thirty men dragging a boat southward over
the ice, and that later the bodies of several men were
found on an island near the mouth of a great river. They
had several articles belonging to officers of the Franklin
Expedition, including nine pieces of plate and Sir John’s
Guelphic Order.
Public attention being occupied elsewhere, the Ad-
miralty considered it enough to ask the Hudson’s Bay
Company to send someone down the Great Fish River
to Montreal Island, which lies at its mouth. Mr Anderson
was sent, without an Eskimo interpreter, reached Montreal
Island, found some fragments of a boat and various
articles, and then returned. The Admiralty thought that
sufficient had been done.
Lady Franklin petitioned the Prime Minister, urging
that 135 officers and men of the British Navy had laid
down their lives after sufferings of unexampled severity
in the service of their country, as truly as if they had
fallen in action. “Surely,” she added, “I may plead for
such men that the bones of the dead be sought for, that
their records be unearthed, that their last written words
be saved from destruction. It is a sacred mission, and
this final search is all Lask.’” The reply was a cold refusal,
and Lady Franklin realised that, if anything was to be
done, she must depend upon her own resources. She did
cH. xxIx] Discovery of the Fate of Franklin 273
not hesitate, but at once came forward herself to fulfil the
duty, and M’Clintock entered upon the completion of his
long and zealous efforts by accepting the mission which
was to crown his Arctic achievements.
Lady Franklin had unbounded confidence in Captain
M’Clintock, and gave him a perfectly free hand. She
set aside £20,000 of her own fortune for the voyage, and
there were subscriptions to the amount of £3000, with
which she purchased the Fox, a steam yacht of 177 tons.
The expedition was fitted out at Aberdeen, and the public
departments were allowed to give some help. Lieut.
W. R. Hobson, who had served in the Plover, got leave
to go as senior executive. Captain Allen Young of the
mercantile marine, young, active, energetic, and full of
zeal, entered as Master and contributed £500. Dr David
Walker went as surgeon, and a very great acquisition
was Carl Petersen, the Dane who was Penny’s dog-driver
and who knew Greenland and its seas so well. The whole
number of souls on board the Fox was twenty-four, and
fifteen had served in former search expeditions. William
Harvey, the chief petty officer, was Captain Austin’s
boatswain’s mate in the Resolute, and afterwards in the
North Star, a thorough seaman and a first-rate sledge
traveller. One great advantage to M’Clintock was that
Captain Austin was at Deptford and could give him
much assistance.
On July Ist, 1857, the Fox was well on her way to
Greenland. Ten dogs were obtained at Lievely, and two
young Eskimos were engaged as seal hunters and dog-
drivers. M’Clintock had already been through Melville
Bay three times, but 1857 was the worst ice year on
record. Constant south-east winds kept the ice closely
packed.
The Fox had made 110 out of the 170 miles required to
cross the bay, and there was hope if only a northerly
wind would spring up. September came, however, and
M’Clintock soon realised that their fate was inevitable—a
winter in the drifting pack. It was a perilous position.
The vessel drifted southwards for 1194 geographical miles
in 242 days, and was liberated in April, 1858, under
appalling circumstances. On the 24th the approach to
the edge of the ice became evident from the swell. The
MI. 18
274. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
ice fragments dashed against each other and against the
ship. Sail was made and the Fox slowly bored her way
through. Next day the swell had become a heavy sea, the
waves thirteen feet high, dashing huge fragments of ice
against the ship. Pieces of iceberg 60 or 70 feet high
were dispersed through the pack, and one blow from any
of them would have been instant destruction. At length,
towards night, the brave little vessel ran through straggling
pieces into an open sea.
After eight months of perilous drifting, finished off by
two such days and nights, most people would have sought
rest in a port. No one who knew M’Clintock would
doubt what he would do. Without a moment’s hesitation
he turned the ship’s head northward again. The year
1858 was much more favourable, and by August 11th the
Fox was off Cape Riley. M’Clintock ran down Peel Sound
for 25 miles, when he was stopped by unbroken ice
extending from shore to shore. He therefore took the
alternative route by Prince Regent’s Inlet, and by the 21st
the Fox was half-way through Bellot Strait. A few miles
of pack ice barred the way, but early in September she
passed right through the strait, but again there was a
barrier, and finally she was obliged to be placed in winter
quarters in a bay at the eastern entrance of the strait,
which was named Port Kennedy. However, she was well
within reach of the deeply interesting region to be
examined.
It was arranged that in the spring there were to be
three expeditions, each with a four-man sledge with
weights reduced to z2oo0lb, at starting, and one dog
sledge with driver and a team of seven, dragging roo lb.
per dog at starting. The small number of men made the
dogs necessary. Hobson was to examine the north coast
of King William Island, cross to Gateshead Island, and
connect Collinson’s with Wynniatt’s furthest, thus com-
pleting the outline of Victoria Island. Allen Young was
to discover the southern side of Prince of Wales Island.
M’Clintock himself with Petersen was to search the estuary
of Back’s Fish River and the whole coast of King William
Island.
Depéots were laid out during the autumn, and by Allen
Young in the depth of winter. M’Clintock undertook a
cH. xx1x] Discovery of the Fate of Franklin = 275
winter journey with temperature —33° to —48° Fahr., in-
tending to build snow huts instead of taking a tent; but it
took two hours to build them. His object was to fall in
with Eskimos and obtain information, which he did ; nearly
all having some plunder from the Evebus or Terror. One
of them stated that a ship had been crushed by the ice out
at sea. The journey of 26 days in the depth of winter
embraced 360 miles and completed the discovery of the
coast line of North America. It also revealed the only
north-west passage for ships between Boothia and King
William Island.
April 2nd was the appointed day for starting on the
long journeys. Petersen was to drive M’Clintock’s dog
sledge. M’Clintock and Hobson travelled together as far
as Cape Victoria, when the latter crossed to Cape Felix,
M’Clintock pressing onwards to the Great Fish River. On
meeting his Eskimo friends again he was told—-what was
concealed before—that a second ship had been driven on
shore. Many more relics were seen in their possession.
Hobson landed at Cape Felix on King William Island
and found the remains of an encampment which had been
hastily abandoned, for tents and clothes were left behind.
Marching onwards he came to the large cairn with a
quantity of gear strewn round it, and a tin cylinder
containing the famous document written by Fitzjames,
which announced the fate of Franklin and the expedition.
Hobson, stricken with scurvy, felt unable to carry out the
rest of his instructions, but two of his men went on and
discovered a large boat. The return journey was then
commenced and the Fox was reached on June 14th after
an absence of 74 days. Latterly Hobson had to be carried
on the sledge. He left in a cairn for M’Clintock a report
and lists of all the articles seen.
M’Clintock continued his advance to the south,
obtaining from the natives several spoons and articles
of plate belonging to officers, and other relics. They said
that many white men had dropped by the way as they
marched, and that some had been buried and others not.
On the 15th May M’Clintock reached Montreal Island.
It was thoroughly searched, but nothing of importance
was found. On the 24th M’Clintock again crossed the
frozen sea to King William Island and followed the shore
18—2
276 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
along which the retreating crews must have marched.
On the 25th a human skeleton, with some fragments of
clothing which were those of an officer’s steward, was found
on a gravel ridge. The pockets had contained a brush,
a comb, and a pocket-book. The shroud of snow no
doubt concealed many other skeletons. On reaching Cape
Herschel M’Clintock was full of hope that Simpson’s
cairn might contain a record, but there was nothing,
On May 20th he reached the extreme western point of
King William Island (69° 8’ N. and roo° 8’ W.) which
he named Cape Crozier.
M’Clintock had now arrived on Hobson’s tracks. The
coast was a series of limestone ridges, and to seaward
there was a rugged surface of crushed-up pack. On the
30th May the camp was formed alongside the boat found
by Hobson about 50 miles from Point Victory. M’Clintock
has given a most interesting account of it and its contents.
It contained two skeletons and was full of relics of all
kindst. On June 2nd M’Clintock reached the cairn at
Point Victory, and realised the whole sad story. “All
the coast-line,’’ he wrote, ‘‘along which the retreating
crews performed their fearful march must be sacred to
their names alone.”
M’Clintock had completed his immortal work. For
ten years he had devoted all his energies and all the
powers of his mind, first to the rescue of the lost
explorers, then to ascertain their fate. Success had
now crowned his efforts and the mystery of the sad fate
of Franklin’s expedition was at last made clear to the
world. M’Clintock and his party had marched round
King William Island. They returned to the ship on
June 19th after an absence of 76 days, having travelled
over 920 miles and discovered 800 miles of new coast
line, and the only navigable North West Passage.
Allen Young commenced his journey on April 7th,
with old Harvey as captain of his sledge, Hobday and
Haselton seamen, and Florance, a stoker, as crew. He
also took a dog-sledge. Crossing the Franklin Channel,
1 Among these was a devotional book which Sir George Back had
given to his old shipmate Gore. It was restored to Sir George, who to the
day of his death always kept it on his drawing-room table under a glass
case,
CH. XxIx] Dyscovery of the Fate of Franklin 277
so named by M’Clintock, he landed at Cape Eyre on
Prince of Wales Island and proceeded to explore the low
and desolate southern coast. Finding that he had not
sufficient provisions to reach Osborn’s furthest and so
complete the exploration of the great island with all his
men, he sent back the rest with the sledge, in charge of
Harvey, to Cape Eyre. He and Hobday went on with
the dog-sledge, and on May 7th reached the table-topped
hills seen by Sherard Osborn in 1851, and so completed
the discovery. Young then made a gallant attempt to
cross the channel to Victoria Island, but this was im-
possible, it being a mass of stupendous hummocks with
deep fissures between them, and a retreat was therefore
made to the sledge at Cape Eyre. He then completed
the discovery of the eastern shore of Prince of Wales
Island as far as Browne’s furthest in 1851. Next he
crossed the channel to Ross’s furthest, and completed
the discovery of the west side of North Somerset thence
to Bellot Strait, taking frequent observations for latitude
and longitude. He and his men were nearly worn out
by the long period of hardships when they were met by
M’Clintock on June 27th. It was a splendid journey, rich
in geographical discovery.
The Fox was now got ready to return. The engines
had been taken to pieces for the winter, the engineer had
died, and the stokers knew nothing about the machinery.
So M’Clintock tucked up his sleeves, went down into the
engine room, and got the engines into working order with
his own hands. There was no one else on board who
could have done it. On August roth, 1859, the Fox was
freed from winter quarters, M’Clintock working the engines
himself for several days, until the vessel was got under
sail. She arrived in the Thames and was taken into the
dock at Blackwall on September 23rd.
The whole nation was full of admiration at the way
in which this great and memorable success had been
achieved. Lady Franklin was more than satisfied at the
result of the expedition, and felt unable to express her
admiration and gratitude for its Commander. His officers
and men were devoted to him, and presented him with
a gold chronometer, “reminding him of that perfect
harmony, that mutual esteem and good will, which
278 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
made our ship’s company a happy little community, and
contributed materially to the success of the expedition.”’
The Queen conferred upon M’Clintock the honour of
knighthood, but the great explorer could not even then be
spared from Arctic work. The Admiralty undertook to
run a line of deep sea soundings from the Faroes, by
Iceland and Greenland, to Labrador. This important
duty was entrusted to Sir Leopold M’Clintock in command
of the Bulldog, and was thoroughly well done, during the
severe Arctic summer of 1860.
At last Sir Leopold returned to the regular naval
service, hoisting his flag twice, and after his retirement
became a very active Elder Brother of the Trinity House.
After serving his country for an unbroken active period
of seventy-seven years, he died in harness on November
17th, 1907, at the age of 89, one of the best and greatest
of Arctic explorers.
CHAPTER XXX
THE EAST COAST OF GREENLAND.
SCORESBY—CLAVERING—GRAAH—KOLDEWEY
THE east coast of Greenland is difficult of access owing
to the great flow of ice from the polar basin. Until the
days of Scoresby it was only sighted from a distance.
Henry Hudson was the first to discover it, and give it
the quaint name of ‘‘ Hudson’s Hold with Hope” in 73° N.
On the old Dutch maps of Peter Plancius (1666) and
Van Keulen (1707) we find ‘“‘Land van Lambert” as far
north as 78° 20’; “Land van Edam” in 77° ro’ N., seen
in 1655; “Gael Hamke” in 74°, seen in 1654. Cape Bruer
Ruys and Bontekoe Island on the Dutch chart were
identified by Clavering, as well as Gael Hamke Bay.
These were merely the sighting of high land at a distance.
In the summer of 1822 the younger Scoresby, in his
Liverpool ship, resolved to combine whaling with geo-
graphical discovery. He forced his way through the ice
into open water near the coast in company with two
other whalers, one commanded by his father. This
eminent Arctic navigator completed a careful survey,
landing at several points, from Gael Hamke Bay to as far
south as 69° N. He made botanical and geological collec-
tions, and completed a chart of his discoveries.
In the very next year Scoresby was followed by one
of the most promising of Arctic voyagers who, like Mecham,
was cut off in his prime. Douglas Clavering was the
eldest son of General Clavering by Lady Augusta Campbell,
daughter of the fifth Duke of Argvll. Born at Holyrood
House in 1794 he served as a midshipman under Captain
Broke in the famous action between the Shannon and
Chesapeake. But young Clavering’s bent was in the
direction of the scientific branches of his profession, and
the friendship he formed with Captain Sabine led that
distinguished officer to apply for the Pheasant for his
pendulum observations in the tropical zones because
280 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Clavering commanded her. These were successfully taken
and useful observations were also made with reference to
the equatorial currents.
The Board of Admiralty then decided that Sabine
shouldswing the seconds pendulum in Norway, Spitsbergen,
and, if possible, on the east coast of Greenland. For this
service Clavering, then a Fellow of the Royal Society,
received command of the Griper, the old gun brig of Parry’s
first voyage. Sabine completed his pendulum observations
in Norway and Spitsbergen, and Captain Clavering pro-
ceeded to the difficult service of forcing the Grifer through
the heavy ice drift to the East Greenland coast. First he
tried to force the ship through in Lat. 77° 30’ N. but found
an unbroken field 200 miles across. Then he tried vainly
again in 75° 30’, but finally reached the coast water in
74° 5'S., and found an island where his friend Sabine
could establish his observatory!. While the pendulum
was being swung, Clavering was intent on geographical
discovery and on completing a survey. His furthest
northern points were two rocks called Ailsa and Haystack.
The island they had first discovered, and one of its
headlands, recalled memories of the Chesapeake action, and
were named Shannon Island and Cape Philip Broke. A
great bay was identified as Gael Hamke’s, but the most
important result of Clavering’s expedition was the dis-
covery of natives as far north as this bay, in 74° N. This
position is an immense distance from those in the southern
part of the east coast where Eskimos were afterwards found,
and no natives have ever been met with since anywhere
near the place where Clavering fell in with them. It was
on the r8th of August, 1823, that he and his small party
came across a seal-skin tent pitched on the beach, on the
north side of Gael Hamke Bay. This tent was 12 feet in
circumference and five feet high, the frame being of wood
and whale’s bone. There were also a small seal-skin canoe,
harpoons, and spears tipped with what appeared to be
meteoric iron. The natives fled and hid behind rocks, but
eventually they returned and became friendly. They
were clothed in seal-skin with the hair inwards. Men,
women, and children all told, only numbered twelve.
1 The Observatory on Pendulum Island was in 74° 32’ 19” N. and
18° 50’ W.
cH.xxx] Zhe East Coast of Greenland 281
It is very improbable that this small family of Eskimos
had worked their way northwards over the immense
distance from the settlements near Cape Farewell. The
alternative is that they were descendants of the emigrants
who found their way to the upper reaches of Sir Thomas
Smith’s Channel many centuries ago. One branch went
south bringing with it the tradition of the wminmak or
musk ox; the other, still following the wminmak, reached
the east coast, and slowly took a long road to extinction.
Nearly fifty years passed away between Clavering’s voyage
and the next visit to this part of the east coast, and in
the interval the dwellers in Gael Hamke Bay had become
extinct, leaving many vestiges.
On August 2oth Captain Sabine’s tents and instruments
were embarked; the Griper was in sight of Scoresby’s
discoveries further south until the 13th September, when
there was a gale which drifted her to the southward
amongst heavy floes and loose ice. They lost three ice
anchors and the kedge, but Clavering bored his way
through the ice into the open sea, where he encountered
a series of heavy gales, making the coast of Norway
on the 23rd. Pendulum observations were taken at
Trondhjem, and the Grviper reached Deptford on the
roth of December, 1823}.
The next attempt to explore the east coast of Greenland
was from the extreme south. Captain Graah of the
Danish navy organised an expedition in March, 1820, at
Nenortalik, the nearest settlement to Cape Farewell on
the west side®. It consisted of four native boats, two
being kayaks and two the larger women’s boats. On
reaching the east side the masses of ice piled on the beach
rendered their progress very slow. Graah went on with
one boat, sending the rest back on June 23rd, and by
the 28th he had advanced as far north as 65° 18’ N.
where he was stopped by an insurmountable barrier of
ice. He went back to a place called Nugarlik in 63° 22' N.,
where he wintered. On this coast between 60° and 65° N.
' Clavering’s fate was a sad one. He sailed in command of the
Redwing from Sierra Leone in the summer of 1827, and was never heard
of again, though some wreckage was found on the coast.
* There had been two early attempts to explore the east coast before
Graah’s expedition. In 1752 Walloe got as far as 60° 28’, and Giesecke,
a German, got to 60° 9’ in 1806.
282 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PaRT!
Graah found 500 to 600 inhabitants. He returned to the
settlements on the west side of Greenland in 1830. His
object was to find the lost colony, for it was not then
understood that the East Bygd was on the west side!.
The distance from Graah’s furthest to the southern
point of Scoresby’s survey remained undiscovered, and its
exploration was reserved for Danish seamen. Dr Peter-
mann had long been urging his countrymen to join the
noble band of Arctic explorers, and in the spring of 1868
he fitted out a small vessel at his own risk, with Karl
Koldewey, a native of Hoya in Hanover, in command.
Unable to approach the east coast of Greenland, that able
navigator made for the Spitsbergen seas, attaining a
latitude of 81°5’N., sailing down Hinlopen Strait, sighting
Wiche’s Land, and returning to Bergen on September 30th,
1868.
Interest in Arctic work was thus aroused in Germany,
a committee was formed, and it was resolved again to
despatch an expedition under Koldewey to the east coast
of Greenland. A vessel of 143 tons was built at Bremers-
haven, at a cost of £3150, and named the Germania. The
schooner Hansa, of only 762? tons, was bought as a consort,
with Captain Hegeman of Oldenburg in command.
Captain Koldewey’s expedition sailed from Bremers-
haven on the 15th June, 1869, and reached the edge of
the ice in 74° 47’ N. On September 14th the Hansa was
closely beset and drifted south all through the winter
until she was destroyed by the ice. Officers and crew
then took to their three boats and eventually reached
the Danish settlement of Friedrichsthal. Meanwhile the
Germania worked her way through the ice, and reaching
land on the 5th August, her winter quarters were finally
fixed in a small bay in one of Clavering’s Pendulum
Islands, in 74° 24'N. Julius Payer, a Lieutenant in the
Austrian army who was born at Teplitz in 1842, was the
moving spirit of the expedition in the work of sledge-
travelling and in the ascent of glaciers and mountains.
He made one journey in September, but the principal
work was undertaken after the winter was over. The
details were not thought out with that close attention
1 Captain Graah’s narrative was translated by Gordon Macdougall,
and published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1837.
cH. xxx] The East Coast of Greenland 283
and full knowledge of all that has gone before which
alone can secure great results; nevertheless, all being
quite new to the work, the journey was highly creditable,
as the ice surface was very bad. Captain Koldewey
and Lieutenant Payer were the leaders, and starting on
the 24th March they reached their furthest point in 77° N.
on the 15th April. A lofty cape in 76° 47’ N. was named
Cape Bismarck. Then, as there were no depédts and
provisions were running short, the return journey was
commenced, and they reached the ship on the 27th April.
The distance covered, there and back, was about 300 miles
and took 35 days, during eight of which they were confined
to the tent by gales. Omitting these, their rate was
a little over ten miles a day. Four other short sledge
journeys were made. As soon as the vessel was freed
from her winter quarters, exploration was commenced
along the coast and a branching fjord was discovered
in 73° 15’ N. extending far into the interior of Greenland.
It received the name “Franz Josef.” Along its shores
two peaks, 7218 and 11,417 feet high respectively, were
named after Petermann and Payer. The scenery was
described as magnificent, exceeding in beauty, says Payer,
anything to be seen in the Alps. After the discovery of
this large fjord the Gerymania returned to Bremen in
September, 1870.
Some years before, Messrs Anthony Gibbs & Co. em-
ployed Mr T. W. Tayler, a chemist and an enthusiast who
believed in the lost colony, to form a settlement on the
east coast in 63° N. He made two attempts, in 1863 and
1864. The failure to penetrate through the ice in 1863
was attributed to the vessels being unsuitable. In 1864
Mr Tayler had the Evik whaler of 412 tons, a well-fortified
ship. She forced her way through the ice for some
distance, but eventually had to give up the attempt and
the project was abandoned.
About 1870 and following years eight British whalers
frequented the Spitsbergen seas, and occasionally ap-
proached the east coast of Greenland. The most enter-
prising whaling captains on this side were David Gray in
the Eclipse of 295 tons, and his brother John Gray in the
Hope of 350 tons; both steamers built by Messrs Hall
of Aberdeen. The Active 380 tons, Jan Mayen 337,
284. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration ([ParTI
Mazanthien 408, and Windward 320 tons, were old sailing
vessels converted into screw steamers; while the Pole
Star and Queen were sailing vessels. Captain David Gray
was especially zealous in his efforts to combine geo-
graphical work with his whaling.
CHAPTER XXXI
SPITSBERGEN
EXPEDITIONS BEFORE 1872
WE have seen how flourishing the Spitsbergen whale
fishery became and how admirably its history was written,
the Dutch by Zorgdrager, and the English by Scoresby.
But when the annual slaughter began to make these
animals scarce there was eagerness to discover new fishing
ground.
Theunis Ys was one of the most experienced navigators
in the ice to the eastward, and one of the first who sought
for whales in that direction. Captain Willem de Vlamingh
followed him in 1664 and even rounded the northern point
of Novaya Zemlya, reaching a latitude of 82° ro’ N.
Along the north coast of Spitsbergen the Dutch whalers
never went east of the Seven Islands, which they dis-
covered, or of Hinlopen Strait. This is conclusive from
the evidence of Martens in 1671, a most reliable authority
as regards the seventeenth century. But early in the
eighteenth century, two Dutch captains, Cornelis Giles
and Outger Rep, went far to the eastward and Giles or
Gillis sighted what has since been called Gillis Land. He
also found that what is now known as Hinlopen Strait
was not an inlet as had been supposed but a navigable
strait}.
The Russians took the lead in Spitsbergen in the
eighteenth century, their plan being to form a depét in
Bell Sound. In 1764 Lieut. Nemtinoff was sent to build
houses and to land stores there, to form a base whence
to push through the ice to the Pacific. In the following
year the expedition under Captain Vassili Tschitschagoft,
1 At my request the late Commodore Jansen searched the Dutch
archives, and wrote an admirable memoir on the ice years in the Novaya
Zemlya arid Spitsbergen Seas, with notices of the chief Dutch voyages
and discoveries. The same accomplished officer was the author of the
chapter on Land and Sea Breezes in Maury’s Physical Geography of the
Sea,
286 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
of which Nemtinoff’s voyage was the precursor, left Arch-
angel. But Tschitschagoff had the misfortune to meet with
a badice year and did little or nothing. He tried again
in 1766 and got as far north as 80° 28’, but he was
stopped by the ice, and the project was given up as
hopeless. A party of Russians in charge of stores had
twice wintered in Bell Sound.
For a century the eastern side of Spitsbergen remained
almost unknown. It is to the Norwegian sealing captains,
and to Professor Mohn of Christiania, who watched
over and utilised their work, that most of our knowledge
of this side is due. The Norwegian fishery dates from
about 1820, but for many years they kept on the west
side, only by degrees working along the north coast to
the eastward. In 1863, however, the adventurous Captain
Carlsen completed the circumnavigation of Spitsbergen
for the first time. In the next year Captains Tobiesen,
Aarstrém, and Mathilas were not so fortunate. They made
their way down the east coast, but, becoming closely
beset, were obliged to abandon their vessels and retreat
in boats up Hinlopen Strait, traversing 700 miles before
they were picked up. In 1872 Captain Altman sailed
up the east side from the south, and sighted Wyche’s
Land, which was discovered by the English in 1617. It
proved to be composed of three islands. Captain Nils
Johnsen succeeded in landing on one of these islands,
and named a lofty cliff Cape Nordenskiéld. In 1872
Captain Nilsen in the Freza also sighted the Wyche Islands,
naming a high mountain Harfagrehangen, it being the
thousandth anniversary of Norway’s union into one
kingdom.
The scientific researches of the Swedes in Spitsbergen
were begun in 1858. They were undertaken to institute
a preliminary survey for measuring an are of meridian,
and also for geological and biological collections. In
1864 Nordenskidéld and Duner took astronomical observa-
tions at eighty different positions on shore, and fixed the
heights of numerous mountain peaks. In 1868 the Swedes,
in the steamer Sofia, reached the latitude of 81° 42’ N.
and in 1870 Baron von Heuglin and Count Zeil, in a vessel
commanded by the Norwegian captain Nils Isaksen, ex-
plored Edge and Barentsz Islands, and Freeman strait,
CH. XXXI] Spitsbergen 287
which divides them. They found a vast accumulation of
drift-wood on the southern shore of the strait.
English yachts have also frequented the Spitsbergen
seas, since Mr Lamont set the example in 1858. In 1864 the
yachting voyage of Mr Birkbeck was of interest, because
he was accompanied by the distinguished ornithologist
Professor Newton of Cambridge. One of the greatest of
Arctic yachtsmen as a scientific explorer was Mr Benjamin
Leigh Smith, who in 1871 explored the north coast of
Spitsbergen, the Seven Islands, and North-east Land,
and attained the high latitude of 81° 24’ N. in 18° E.
He also made voyages to Spitsbergen in 1872 and 1873.
In the latter year he was in the Diana yacht with several
friends, while Captain Walker took the Sampson to Cobbe
Bay, to fall back upon in case of accidents. He also took
several deep sea soundings, and did most useful work in
relieving the Swedish expedition. Leigh Smith’s enthu-
siasm lay deep, and he was not without inventive talent.
The result of his practice as a navigator was the invention
of an instrument to facilitate the computation of time at
sea from the usual sights taken for that purpose, and also to
act as a check on errors when the time has been computed
in the usual mannert. Such a man was likely to leave
his mark. He didso. By his observations he corrected
the longitudes, and considerably extended the north coast
of North-east Land to the eastward.
The Swedish expedition of 1872, under Professor Nor-
denskidld, was composed of the steamer Polhem, the brig
Gladan, and the steamer Onkel Adam. The Polhem was
commanded by Lieut. Palander. He, with other officers
and professors, were to remain through the winter at
Mossel Bay in a dwelling-house of six rooms, taken out in
pieces. Sledges and 40 reindeer were shipped at Troms6,
with 3000 sacks of reindeer moss. Unluckily the animals
all escaped soon after they were landed, and the two other
vessels, detained by the ice, were obliged to winter with
the Polhem. Six fishing vessels were also frozen in. In
1 The instrument consists of four arcs graduated so as to read to
30 with the verniers. Two of these arcs, representing the altitude and
latitude, are moveable. The two others, which represent the declination
and hour circle, are fixed. In using it the verniers of the proper arcs
are set to the declination, the altitude, and the latitude respectively.
‘The readings on the hour circle will then show the hour angle.
288 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
April Nordenskidld and Palander started on a sledge
journey with 14 men. Rounding Cape Platen on North-
east Land, they struck inland, and marched across the
snow-covered hills to Hinlopen Strait which they crossed,
and so got back to Mossel Bay. They were away 60
days. In the summer Leigh Smith arrived in the Diana
and supplied the crews with fresh provisions. The Swedish
expedition returned to Troms6 on August 6th, 1873.
One other Spitsbergen expedition must be mentioned.
Lieut. Payer, who had been the moving spirit in the sledge
journeys of Koldewey’s expedition, was bent on continuing
his Arctic explorations. He found a coadjutor in Lieut.
Weyprecht of the Austrian Navy, an officer of very high
scientific attainments. They hired a small vessel of 70 tons,
the Isbjérn, at Troms6 with the idea of following the Gulf
Stream into an imaginary polar basin, by keeping to the
eastward of Spitsbergen. Attempting to reach Gillis Land
they found the fogs very frequent, preventing observations,
and, on August 31st, 1871, they were in Lat. 78° 41’ N.
Then sailing east they sighted Novaya Zemlya and re-
turned to Troms6 in October.
Meanwhile the Norwegian sealers began to frequent
Novaya Zemlya. Carlsen had reached the mouth of the
Obi in 1869. In 1870 about sixty Norwegian sailing
vessels went to the seas round Novaya Zemlya. Captain
Johannesen circumnavigated these islands, and Captain
Carlsen did the same in 1871. The information collected
by the Norwegian fishermen induced Payer and Weyprecht
to select this route for an expedition they had projected.
CHAPTER XXXII
FRANZ JOSEF LAND AND ITS EXPLORERS
THE cruise in the Jsbjé6yn was preparatory to a
successful effort on the part of Lieutenants Payer and
Weyprecht to raise funds for an Arctic expedition. Their
plan was to round the north end of Novaya Zemlya and
make discoveries to the eastward. Their vessel, the
Tegethoff, fitted out at Bremershaven, was a steamer of
200 tons and Ioo h.-p., with a crew of 22 men. They
left Bremershaven on the 13th June, 1872, and sighted
Novaya Zemlya on the 3rd August. By October the
LTegethoff was closely and hopelessly beset, drifting about
at the mercy of wind and tide, to the north of Novaya
Zemlya. In the summer of 1873 the crew were fully
engaged in seal hunting; and on the 30th August an
entirely unknown land was sighted in 79° 43’ N. and
59° 33’ E. In November an island was reached by a party
from the ship, and then the explorers entered upon their
second winter of 1873-74.
Weyprecht cared most for his meteorological and
magnetic observations, but Payer was very eager to
explore the newly-discovered land, which received the
name of Franz Josef Land. Payer paid a just tribute
to M’Clintock in attributing such success as he attained
to following the great sledge traveller’s advice. He pre-
pared for a month’s journey, taking four sacks of provisions
each containing sufficient for seven days for seven men,
and they succeeded in obtaining some bear meat. He is
clear as to the comfort of hot grog in the intense cold
of the night. The sledging party, with dogs as auxiliaries,
started on March 25th, and on April rath, 1874, the
furthest point was reached in 82° 5’N., 165 miles from
the ship. They returned to the Tegethoff on the 25th
April, and some shorter excursions were afterwards made.
Payer’s general idea of this great discovery was that
Franz Josef Land consisted of two masses of land, which
M. I.” 19
EE Le
290 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
were named Zichy and Wilczek after the two chief
supporters of the expedition, separated by a channel
which was named Austria Sound. It was afterwards
found to consist of an archipelago of smaller and more
numerous islands than Payer supposed. His furthest
point was Cape Fligely, but the land he thought he saw
further north, and called Petermann Land, has since been
found not to exist.
As the ship remained immoveable in the summer of
1874, it was found necessary to abandon her and retreat
in the boats. After a long journey over the ice, they
launched the three boats on the open sea, were picked
up by a Russian schooner, and arrived safely at Troms6
on the 3rd September. Lieut. Payer was an accom-
plished artist, as well as a sledge traveller; and in after
years he painted several fine pictures illustrating some
of the last and most pathetic scenes connected with the
Franklin expedition.
The next addition to our knowledge of Franz Josef
Land was supplied by that enterprising and persevering
yachtsman Leigh Smith. He had a vessel built, suitable
for ice navigation, which he named the Eiva. She was
a steamer of 360 tons and 50 h.-p., 150 ft. long by
25 ft. beam, manned by 25 men all told. Leigh Smith’s
companions were Lofley the master, the surgeon Dr Neale,
and Mr W. G. A. Grant. The great problem which
Leigh Smith had to determine was whether there was
a practicable route across the ice-laden Barentsz Sea,
between Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, to Franz Josef
Land. Leigh Smith forced his way through the pack
and sighted land on the 14th August, 1880—a new part
of Franz Josef Land to the westward.
There were many large icebergs, but they were quite
unlike those of Davis Strait, being flat masses like the
Antarctic bergs. Leigh Smith and Grant landed at several
places, making collections of the flora and of rock speci-
mens. The extent of the new coast line discovered and
explored was 110 miles, and of that seen 150 miles.
There was great abundance of walrus and seals. This was
one of the most important summer cruises ever made in
the Arctic regions.
The second cruise of the Eira in 1881 was disastrous.
Julius Payer
cu. xxx] franz Josef Land and its Explorers 291
No less than ten days of ice navigation, towards the end
of July, were required to reach the coast, the floes being
closely packed together. Gun-cotton was found to be
very useful in blasting the ice. Franz Josef Land was
sighted on the 23rd July, and the Eiva reached a point
further west than was possible in the previous year,
Cape Lofley being the extreme western point discovered.
Some days were then spent at Cape Flora dredging and
collecting plants and fossils.
On the 21st August the pack ice came in with the
tide, and the Eira, caught and crushed between it and
the ground floe, at once filled and went down. Her
yards, catching on the ice, held her for a few seconds,
but they soon broke in the slings with a loud crash as she
settled. She sank in 11 fathoms, and looking down from
the ice, she could be seen quite distinctly. All hands
had been employed getting provisions out on the ice
and saving everything that could be got at until just
before she sank. Some spars and planking floated up
and were secured. During the rest of August the men
were busily engaged in building a hut of turf and stones,
collecting drift-wood, and shooting walrus, bears, and
looms, for their existence depended on obtaining sufficient
fresh animal food. During the autumn 21 walrus,
13 bears, and 1200 looms were shot. They had saved
from the vessel 1500 lb. of flour, 400 lb. of bread, a barrel
of salt meat, 1000 lb. of preserved meat, 800 tins of soups,
besides preserved vegetables, tobacco, some cases of
whisky and brandy, and 7 cwt. of coal. All hands kept
in perfect health throughout the winter, a fact which
reflects great credit on Dr Neale.
On the 21st June, 1884, Leigh Smith and his party
set out on their perilous voyage in four boats, and after
42 days the shipwrecked sailors sighted the coast of
Novaya Zemlya on August znd. Near the entrance to
the Matyushin Shar they met the Hope, under the com-
mand of Sir Allen Young, who had come out to search
for the missing crew, and all returned home in safety.
There was an interval of ten years before the inves-
tigation of Franz Josef Land was resumed. Its next
explorer, Frederick G. Jackson, was destined to do good
work there. He began by a preliminary journey in the
I9—2
292 «=A retic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
country of the Samoyeds and the Lapps in 1893, care-
fully studying their dress and equipments, and to some
extent adopting them. Mr Harmsworth, the newspaper
proprietor, having found the funds, the Windward, an
old whaler, was bought, and an expedition fitted out.
Jackson was a keen sportsman, and a man of original
mind, ready to adopt the well-tried methods of his pre-
decessors, but quite as ready to invent new contrivances,
or to make improvements as experience suggested. He
had with him Lieut. Armitage, an excellent officer of
the P. and O. service, as surveyor and astronomer,
Dr Koettlitz as surgeon and geologist, and three other
men of science. As the Windward was to land the party
and return, a log house was taken in pieces, besides four
ponies and sixteen dogs for sledge work, and three years’
provisions.
The house was built on Northbrook Island, where
there was likely to be a supply of walrus and bear, as
strong currents prevented the formation of permanent
ice. Unfortunately the Windward was obliged to winter
also, and scurvy broke out, but she returned in the fol-
lowing summer. After a short preliminary run of a week,
the important journey northwards was commenced on
the 16th April, 1895, with three ponies drawing six
sledges, and provisions for 63 days; but the journey
actually only occupied 26 days. The sledges were g ft.
6 in. long, with a width of only 18 in., which is much
too narrow. The allowance of food per man per day
was 3 lb.—about the same as M’Clintock’s scale. Their
aluminium cooking apparatus (5% 1b.) was an invention
of Jackson’s, and they provided themselves against an
arrest of progress on meeting water by taking an alu-
minium boat (150 lb.) and a canvas kayak.
The clothing was an imitation of that worn by the
Lapps—militzas or loose frocks with the fur inside,
and tobacks or hay-stuffed boots for the feet. Jackson
wore knee breeches of warm cloth, a loose jumper of
thick woollen stuff, a close-fitting cap covering ears and
back of the neck, a cloth mask, and a light linen covering.
The tent was a low cone, difficult to pitch in a gale. It
was pitched for luncheon, and warm tea was made, with
biscuit, cheese, and bacon. They had no sleeping-bags.
cH. xxx] franz Josef Land and its Explorers 293
The great trouble was the slushy condition of the snow
and the frequent snowstorms. This first journey estab-
lished the fact that the western half of Franz Josef Land
was not one land but an archipelago, and that a channel
passed up to a wide northern sea. Two hundred and
seventy miles of new coast line were discovered. In the
second season Jackson had the great pleasure of rescuing
Nansen and Johansen from their perilous, indeed almost
hopeless position. In the third season a longer journey
was undertaken, part of it over the glacier of the western
island. Only one pony had survived; this died on the
journey, and the deaths of dogs reduced the number
to five. Again the snow was soft and slushy, and the
snowstorms so frequent that during the whole journey
of 55 days only thirteen were fine. At its conclusion
they had explored 250 miles in a direct line, probably
travelling nearly 500—a very remarkable journey. The
results were important. The western islands of the
group were discovered and explored, the most western
point was ascertained, and its distance from Spitsbergen
found to be 250 miles. After three winters the Windward
brought the Jackson expedition safely back to England
in September 1887.
We owe our knowledge of the extremely interesting
Franz Josef group chiefly to the labours of Payer, Leigh
Smith, and Jackson. Nansen discovered the furthest
portion north, and the group has been used as a base
to attempt journeys to the Pole. Cagni, Wellman, and
Captain Fiala of the Ziegler Expedition (1903—1906)
have also added to our information, the latter by a
careful survey and map. We can now take a general
view of the results of these discoveries.
The Franz Josef group of over fifty large and small
islands extends for 270 miles from west to east between
the meridians of 42° and 64° E. and for 140 miles from
south to north between 79° 50’ and 82° 5’ N. The group
rises from the same submarine plateau as Spitsbergen,
forming part of the same system, though the land mass is
further to the north than that of Spitsbergen. The
northern coast of the North-east Land of Spitsbergen just
crosses the 80th parallel, while only a few small islets of
the Franz Josef group are to the south of it.
294. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
The Franz Josef archipelago is divided by the Austria
Sound of Payer and the British Channel of Jackson
into three groups, named respectively the Wilczek, Zichy,
and Alexandra groups. East of Austria Sound there
are two large islands, Wilczek and Graham Bell, forming
the eastern limit of the group. The Wullerstorf mountain
on Wilczek Island rises to a height of 2409 ft. To the
north of Graham Bell Island are the small islets discovered
by Nansen, who named them Hoitland.
West of Austria Sound are the numerous islands,
large and small, which form the Zichy group; while
to the north is Kronprinz Rudolf Island with its Midden-
dorf glacier. The northern point of Kronprinz Rudolf,
called Cape Fligely, is the northern extremity of the
whole group!.
On the west side of the British Channel are North-
brook, Bruce, Isabel, and Bell Islands. At the west end
of Northbrook Island is Cape Flora, where was ‘‘ Elm-
wood,” Jackson’s winter quarters; and between Mabel
and Bell Islands is Eira Harbour, where Leigh Smith
wintered. Westward are the two large islands of Prince
George and Alexandra. The former, 90 miles long by
68, is almost covered with glaciers, and forms the western
shore of the British Channel, with the Armitage, Arthur
Harmsworth, and Albert Edward Islands to the north.
On the northern horizon Jackson reported open water,
which he named Queen Victoria Sea. The westernmost
island, believed to be separated from Prince George
Island by Cambridge Bay or Strait, is called Alexandra
Island, and is also nearly covered with glaciers, but with
low land along its northern shore. It is 120 miles long
by some 50 miles wide.
Payer describes the lands seen from Austria Sound
as covered with fields of ice, while rows of basaltic
columns, rising tier above tier, stand out as if crystallized,
but the natural colour of the rock is not visible, even
the steepest walls of rock being covered with ice. The
mountains are table-shaped and rise to heights of from
1 The northern lands which Payer thought he saw from Cape Fligely,
and which he named Oscar and Petermann Lands, as well as the north-
easterly extension of Kronprinz Rudolf Island from Cape Fligely to
Cape Sherard Osborn, have since been found by Captain Cagni to have
no existence.
cH. xxx] franz Josef Land and tts Explorers 295
2000 to 3000 feet, and the predominating formation
resembles the dolerite of Greenland, though coarser
grained and of a dark yellowish-green colour. Payer
also observed terraced beaches covered with débris con-
taining organic remains. The small snow-covered islets
reached by Nansen from the north are composed of a
coarse-grained basalt. The western half of the Franz
Josef group was more thoroughly explored by Jackson
and Armitage, with the aid of their able and accomplished
companions, during four summers and three winter
seasons 1894-97.
Dr Koettlitz, the geologist of Mr Jackson’s expedition,
from the results of three years of observation combined
with the reports of Payer and Leigh Smith, has been
able to give a fairly good general view of the past history
and present appearance of the Franz Josef group. He
looks upon the numerous islands as the fragments of an
old table-land, doubtless connected with other lands
from which it is now separated by wide seas, and he
places the existence of this continental land in the Jurassic
period. But the principal feature of the group, as was
also observed by Payer, is the basalt or the dolerite of
which the plateau formation consists. This basaltic
rock formation is from 500 to 600 feet in perpendicular
height, and Dr Koettlitz dates it from Jurassic times;
in which case all strata that may have been laid down
after this period have disappeared through denudation,
or are buried under the ice sheets. When the hills were
clothed with those plants of the Jurassic age which have
been recognised among the fossils that have been brought
home, the climate must have been mild and genial, and
the land was connected with Spitsbergen.
The present flora of Franz Josef Land is almost confined
to terraces or slopes with a southern aspect, and is poor
as compared with that of Spitsbergen. But it gives
some little colouring to the dreary summer landscape,
and in the neighbourhood of loomeries there are many
bright-coloured mosses!.
1 The Franz Josef flora includes the ubiquitous Savifraga oppositifolia,
Cavdamine bellidifolia, Avenavia sulcata, Draba alpina, Cerastium alpinum,
Papaver nudicaule, and Cochlearia fenestvata. A rare and beautiful grass,
Pleuropogon sabinii, was also found, only previously known at Melville
296 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTt
There are very few mammals on these desolate islands.
Polar bears, however, frequent the neighbouring floes in
considerable numbers, and wander about all the winter.
The Austrians shot over 60, Nansen 19, and 120 were
seen by the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition. The Arctic
hare was not met with, and foxes were very rarely seen
at “Elmwood,” though they made themselves at home
at Nansen’s winter quarters. Bones and antlers of deer
were found on the raised beaches, and it is not easy
to account for their presence. They might possibly have
come with drift-wood. White whales, narwhals, and three
kinds of seals were seen, and walruses were abundant}.
The snowy owl is a frequenter of Franz Josef Land,
suggesting the presence of its favourite food, but lemmings
were not met with. Snow buntings are widely spread
over the islands, and remain from April to October, and
the Lapland bunting also comes in smaller numbers in
May, as well as the shore lark. Brent geese arrive in
June, but the eider duck is rare. There are ptarmigan,
first seen by members of the Zeigler expedition. The
wading birds comprise turnstones, sanderlings, and two
sandpipers. The very rare Ross’s gull was found by Nansen
breeding in considerable numbers. The glaucous gull,
fulmar, kittiwake, and arctic tern also visit the group, and
the ivory gulls breed there abundantly. The red-throated
diver comes, but is rare. Looms and dovekies visit the
southern coast, and the little-auks are numerous. The
whole number of species of birds visiting Franz Josef Land
is 23, against 33 in Spitsbergen, and 43 in Novaya Zemlya.
The Franz Josef group of islands may be considered
geologically as part of Spitsbergen, both being fragments
of the same continental land of Jurassic times?. The
Island, at one or two places up Prince Regent’s Inlet, and in Novaya
Zemlya, where itisabundanht. Only 27 flowering plants have been collected
in Franz Josef Land, and 25 mosses.
1 The price of walrus hides has risen since they have been found to
be the best material for burnishing parts ot bicycles. The steamer Balaena
was, therefore, sent to Franz Josef Land in 1897, and obtained 500 hides,
while about 1500 were lost owing to the animals sinking when dead, so
that this monstrous slaughter amounted to 2000, not counting the number
of young that must also have perished.
2 The great depth found by the Sophia to the north of Spitsbergen
pointed to a deep ocean as existing north of the whole Spitsbergen and
Franz Josef system. I formed this deduction in 1876, and Nansen’s
discovery afterwards proved it to be correct.
cH. xxx] franz Josef Land and its Explorers 297
143 miles of ice-covered sea between Cape Mary Harms-
worth, the northernmost point of Alexandra Land, and
Cape Leigh Smith on North-east Land has not yet been
explored. The sea to the east of Wilczek and Graham
Bell Islands is also unknown.
During the period from August 1872 to the following
February the Tegethoff was drifted in a north-easterly
direction from Cape Nassau of Novaya Zemlya, which
is in longitude 62° E., to 71° 38’ E., a distance of about
125 miles, and from February to the next October, in
latitude 79° N., she drifted westward until she reached
the land ice on the south coast of Franz Josef. These
drifts appear to have been due to the prevailing winds.
The sea to the south of Franz Josef Land, between
Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya, has received the name
of the Barentsz Sea. Its greatest depth is 230 fathoms,
and over the greater part of the area the depth is not
more than 100 fathoms. The ice is always kept well out
of sight of the European coast by the Atlantic current,
and when the line of the pack is met with in about 74°N.,
it is found to be sufficiently loose for navigation north-
wards during some part of the summer, the general drift
being to the westward, but varying with the winds.
CHAPTER XXXIIl
THE ROUTE BY SMITH SOUND.
KANE—HAYES—HALL—NARES—MARKHAM
WHEN my old messmate Admiral Sherard Osborn
and I resolved to agitate until the Government was
induced to dispatch another Arctic expedition, we
selected the route of Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel as the
one most likely to afford valuable scientific results. We
strongly deprecated a mere rush for the North Pole, as
not only useless in itself, but also as hindering important
geographical work.
The Northern Sound seen by Baffin in 1616 was
discovered by Captain Inglefield in 1852 to be a wide
channel leading to the polar ocean, and the land on its
western side, facing Greenland—also discovered, but not
named, by Baffin—received the name of Ellesmere Island
from Inglefield. He found the entrance of Smith Sound
to be 36 miles across. His extreme northern point was
78° 28' 21" N.
In 1853 the American, Dr Kane, in the little brig
Advance of 120 tons, with a crew of 17 men, started for
Smith Sound very poorly equipped'. He had some
thought of completing the search for Franklin in this
direction, but his main idea was to push his way as far
north as possible in the brig until he reached the (imagi-
nary) open polar sea. The Advance was stopped by the
ice only nine miles north of Inglefield’s most northern
position, and there Kane was forced to winter, in a place
which he named Rensselaer Harbour, on the east side
of the Sound in 78°37’ N. The coast consists of pre-
cipitous cliffs 800 to 1200 feet high, with a belt of ice
about 18 feet thick resting on the beach’.
1 I knew Dr Kane when he served in Grinnell’s relief expedition, of
which he wrote the history. His was certainly a charming personality,
talented, cheerful, and enthusiastic.
2 Kane adopted the Danish name of ice-foot (Jis-fod) for this permanent
frozen ridge or terrace.
cH. xxxill] Zhe Route by Smith Sound 299
Some short sledge journeys were undertaken in the
spring, and Dr Kane himself went as far as a large dis-
charging glacier, to which he gave the name of Humboldt.
His steward, a man named Morton, with the Eskimo
Hans Hendrik and a team of dogs, crossed the front of
the glacier, and saw some open water caused by a strong
current, the extent of which he exaggerated. Unable
to extricate the Advance, Dr Kane and his people had
to face a second winter, unprovided either with fuel or
with anything but salt provisions. Scurvy soon attacked
them, but they were saved by the kindly natives, who
shared with them the proceeds of their hunting. Half
the brig being burnt for fuel and the provisions nearly
spent, Dr Kane abandoned her on May 17th, 1855, and
the whole party retreated to the Danish settlement of
Upernivik, which they reached on August 6th, 83 days
after abandoning the brig. The story of their hardships
and sufferings, as told in the charming narrative of the
accomplished leader, is very interesting. His work con-
tains the best account of the Arctic Highlanders, from
whom they received so much kindness and hospitality.
It is, however, to be regretted that from the exaggerated
story of his steward, Dr Kane should have built up such
an untenable theory as that of an open polar sea, for
it misled many persons for a long time.
Dr Hayes, the surgeon of the Advance, obtained
funds for an expedition to follow in the wake of Dr Kane.
He sailed from Boston on July roth, 1860, in the United
States, a schooner of 133 tons, with a crew of 15 men.
The little craft was blown out of Smith Sound three
times before she was at last fixed in winter quarters,
ten miles north-east of Cape Alexander, the western
portal of the Sound, and zo miles south of Kane’s winter
quarters. Dr Hayes began his sledge travelling on April
4th in the following year. He started with 12 men,
14 dogs, and a metallic boat on runners; but the latter
was sent back, and the party was reduced to four men
and two dog sledges. Crossing the Sound, they reached
the coast of Ellesmere Island on May roth, and travelled
northwards until the 18th. There was great abundance
of animal life and consequent exemption from scurvy at
his winter quarters, which he called Port Foulke. The
300 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
schooner was broken out of the ice on July roth and
returned safely to Boston in October, 186r.
Ten years afterwards an expedition in the same
direction was undertaken by an American named Hall,
He was not a seaman, and possessed no scientific at-
tainments, but he was endowed with undaunted persist-
ence and enthusiasm and a very interesting personality.
He was most deeply impressed with the sad story of
the Franklin expedition, and for five consecutive years
sought for relics along the south coast of King William
Island, living with the Eskimos. In 1870 he began his
agitation for an expedition to reach the North Pole, and
the Navy Department handed over to him a river gun-
boat called the Periwinkle, of 387 tons. Hall changed her
name to the Polaris}.
A seaman was necessary to command the vessel, and
Captain Buddington of New London, who had made
thirteen whaling voyages, was selected, Captain Tyson
being his chief mate. Dr Emil Bessels, who had been with
the German expedition of 1869, had charge of the scientific
work. Morton and the Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, who were
with Dr Kane, joined, also three other Eskimos, friends
of Hall, named Joe, Hannah, and their daughter Silvie.
The outward voyage was fortunate. During August of
1871, Hall sailed up Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel with
little difficulty from the ice until he reached a latitude
of 82°16’ N., on August 30th. The winter quarters
were in a harbour on the Greenland side, named Thank
God Bay, in 81° 38’ N.
Hall, with his dogs, went for a short autumn journey
as far as an inlet which he named Newman Bay, its
northern cape, called Brevoort, being in 82° 2’ N. and
61° 20’ W. He was taken ill on his return, became
partially paralyzed, and died on November 8th. He
was buried on shore, and a monument has been erected
to his memory. Captain Buddington resolved upon
returning without attempting anything further. On
August 12th, 1872, the ship was again free, but once
* It is a singular fact that the changing of names of Arctic vessels
has frequently coincided with misfortune. The names of all the ships
but one in the Franklin search were changed, and all were lost except
the Fox, and her name was not changed.
cH. Xxx] The Route by Smith Sound 301
more became beset, and drifted out of Smith Sound by
the current. On October 15th she was again beset, and
so severely nipped that boats and provisions were got
out on the ice. Suddenly the ice eased off, but Tyson
and seventeen others, including several Eskimos, were
left on the floe. This ice floe continued to drift to the
south, but the means of building snow shelters were
found on it, many birds were shot, and the Eskimo,
Hans Hendrik, killed more seals than the whole party
could consume. After a long drift down Baffin’s Bay,
the forlorn people were picked up in 53° 35’ N. by the
Tigress, Captain Bartlett, who took them to St John’s,
Newfoundland, in good health.
Meanwhile the Polaris was driven to the north again
by a southerly gale, and ran on shore at Littleton Island
near the entrance of Smith Sound. Here the fourteen
remaining men passed a second winter, plentifully supplied
with fresh provisions by the friendly Arctic Highlanders.
They built two boats, and began a southern voyage in
July, 1873, until they were picked up by the English
whaler Ravenscraig, whence they were transferred a few
days later to the whaler Arctic (on which Capt. A. H.
Markham was at the time) and brought to England. All
the journals were in charge of Dr Bessels, himself an
accomplished naturalist and good observer, and his results
were afterwards published.
This is all that was then known of the route by
Sir Thomas Smith’s Channel. Inglefield announced the
opening to the Polar Sea, and Hall’s river steamer found
her way through the ice to the further end. But here
again many were misled, for the chart that was first
produced made the land on the west side continue to
trend due north towards the pole. Correct information
from Dr Bessels, however, prevented Sherard Osborn and
myself from being deceived by the chart, and our con-
clusion was that the most valuable Arctic work would be
to discover and explore the coasts facing the polar ocean.
On January 23rd, 1865, Sherard Osborn had read his
able paper advocating the renewal of Arctic research
before a very crowded meeting of the Geographical
Society. All the survivors of the old expeditions who
could possibly come were there, and many other men
302 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parts
of distinction in the scientific world. All were impressed
by the eloquence of the gallant sailor, as well known
for his great service in the Sea of Azof as for his Arctic
work. All were convinced. The Government must once
more undertake the duty. It was a most encouraging
beginning, but in March Osborn was obliged to leave
England, handing over to me the onerous duty of con-
tinuing the fight single-handed.
On the roth April, 1865, I read a paper at a meeting
of the Geographical Society on the best route for Arctic
exploration, but Sir Roderick Murchison caused a letter
from Dr Petermann assailing my position to be read at the
same time, and advocating a route north of Spitsbergen,
long known to be impracticable. This apple of discord
threw back the good cause for several years, but I continued
to work hard at the propaganda, and not without success.
Sherard Osborn returned to England in 1872, and read
a paper before the Geographical Society on April 22nd,
pointing out Dr Petermann’s errors and quoting Nor-
denskidld, Payer, and his own man Koldewey against
him. The Spitsbergen route was no more heard of, but
great delay had been caused.
We grew more hopeful, and in December, 1872, a depu-
tation waited on Mr Lowe and Mr Goschen. It met with
a very unsatisfactory reception, but the idea was getting
a firm grip of the public mind, which was shown in several
ways. My work, The Threshold of the Unknown Region,
which dealt with the subject, went through four editions
in two years, and was translated into French. It was
thought desirable that a naval officer should make a
preliminary cruise and observe the change that steam
power had made in ice navigation. Valuable information
would thus be acquired and the published narrative of such
a voyage would keep up the interest of the public in Arctic
work. Commander Albert H. Markham volunteered for
this service, and embarking on board the Dundee whaler
Arctic, Captain Adams, sailed from that port in May 1873.
When the whalers were all sailing vessels there was
usually much detention, and sometimes considerable loss,
in passing through Melville Bay. In 1850 the ice offered
such opposition to progress that the whole fleet gave it
up in despair. In 1830 the whole whaling fleet was
Lieut Parr, R.N., Cdr A. H. Markham, R.N.,
H.M.S. Alert HLM.S. Alert
G
CA
Sir George Nares
Lieut P. Aldrich, R.N., H.M.S. Alert Lieut L. A. Beaumont, H.M.S. Discovery
rete
Beane 4
cH.xxxul] Zhe Route by Smith Sound 303
nipped against the land floe 40 miles south of Cape
York, the floes overlapping each other. Nineteen ships
were destroyed, but a tew escaped by digging deep docks
in the land ice. A thousand men were encamped on the
floes, and the loss amounted to £142,000.
Commander Markham found a very different state
of things in 1873. The whaling fleet consisted of ten
ships, the largest being the Arctic of 439 tons. She
made a very quick passage through Melville Bay, reaching
the north water on June gth. This enabled Commander
Markham to visit Port Leopold, Fury Beach, and Prince
Regent’s Inlet as far as Cape Garry, as well as to learn
all the mysteries of the industry, and take his share in
the pursuit and capture of whales. The Arctic returned
after the capture of twenty-eight whales, yielding nearly
15 tons of bone and 265 tons of oil, worth £18,925. The
publication of Commander Markham’s most interesting
narrative much increased the feeling in favour of Arctic
enterprise. The battle had indeed been a hard and
long-contested one, but victory was in sight. On Novem-
ber 17th, 1874, the Prime Minister, Lord Beaconsfield,
announced that the Government would despatch an
Arctic expedition for the encouragement of maritime
enterprise, and for the exploration of the region round
the North Pole. Nothing could be more satisfactory.
We had deprecated a mere rush to the Pole itself as
useless, but we had been constantly urging the explora-
tion of the region round the Pole for twelve long years.
But the matter passed into the hands of the Admiralty,
and all our arguments, supported by those of the various
learned Societies, were totally disregarded. It was
announced that the main object of the expedition was
to attain the highest latitude and, if possible, to reach
the North Pole!
Fortunately, Sir Leopold M’Clintock was the Admiral
Superintendent at Portsmouth dockyard, where the
expedition was fitted out, Dr Lyall and Mr Lewis of
the Assistance (1852-54) being responsible for the pro-
visions. The Alert, a 17-gun sloop, was strengthened
and prepared for Arctic service!; and by my advice
1 Length 160 ft., extreme breadth 33°4 ft., depth of hold 17 ft.,
tonnage 751, nominal h.-p. 60.
304 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
a sealer, built at Dundee in 1873 and named the Blood-
hound, was purchased for the second ship. She was the
best possible model for a vessel for Arctic service}.
Captain Nares, who had served on board the Resolute
in 1852-54, when he was in charge of Mecham’s depét
sledge, was recalled from the Challenger to take command
of the expedition. The Captain of the second ship was
Captain Stephenson, Albert Markham being Commander
of the Alervt, and Lewis Beaumont first lieutenant of
the Bloodhound, whose name was changed to the Discovery,
The officers Aldrich, May, Parr, Giffard, Egerton, Archer,
Rawson, and Conybeare, nearly all attained distinction
in after life, thanks to an Arctic training. Captain Feilden
was the naturalist of the Alert, Mr Hart of the Discovery.
The surgeons were Drs Colan and Moss in the Alert, Ninnis
and Coppinger with Captain Stephenson.
A volume was printed by the Geographical Society
and presented to the Expedition, containing papers on
Arctic geography and ethnology, and another manual
was prepared by the Royal Society on various branches
of science in their connection with the regions proposed
to be visited. The sledge equipments were in the able
and efficient hands of Sir Leopold, and were of course as
perfect as it was possible to make them”. The provisions
for ships and sledges were the same as for the search
expeditions, or were intended to be the same. The
Valorous paddle steamer was in company, to fill up the
exploring ships at Disco, and take a line of deep-sea
soundings across the Atlantic during her return voyage.
The immense crowd, brought by trains from all parts
of England, which was assembled on Southsea Common
on the 2gth May, 1875, when the Arctic ships left Ports-
mouth Harbour, was a proof that a proper spirit had
at length been aroused. Men and officers were the pick
of the service, and the expedition started under most
promising conditions. It encountered terrific gales, how-
1 Length 166 ft., extreme breadth 30 ft, depth of hold 18 ft.,
tonnage 668, nominal h.-p. 43.
2 Each sledge'had its flag, which, at my suggestion, was designed on
proper heraldic rules. The cross of St George at the hoist, the fly swallow-
tailed, party per fess with the colours of the sledge-commander’s arms, and
his crest or principal charge over all, a border or fringe of the colours of
the arms. The same pattern was adopted for the sledge flags of Captain
Scott’s Antarctic expeditions.
cH.xxxiu] Zhe Route by Snuth Sound 305
ever, in crossing the Atlantic, and it was not until July
6th that the three vessels arrived at Lievely or Godhavn,
on the south coast of Disco Island. The Alevt and
Discovery were here filled up with stores and provisions
by the Valorous, took on board dogs, and with them
a Dane named Petersen (not the great Carl Petersen)
and the Eskimo Frederick. Parting company with the
Valorous at Ritenbenk, they sailed down the Waigat
fjord north of Disco, and on July 19th arrived at Proven,
where the services of the veteran Hans Hendrik were
secured for the Discovery}.
As the season was late Captain Nares took the middle
pack, and reached the north water of Baffin’s Bay in
34 hours. At the end of July a small depét was left at
Cape Isabella, the western entrance of Sir Thomas Smith’s
Channel, but soon afterwards the ships were beset near
Cape Sabine, and detained by the ice for five days. At
last there was a lead to the north, but the Alevt was
for some time in great danger of being forced up the
side of a berg. There were heavy falls of snow and much
danger from the drifting floes, and on August 8th they
had to cut a dock in order to avoid a serious nip. At
length Lady Franklin Bay was reached, and fixed upon
as the winter quarters of the Discovery. The Alert
pushed on, and fortunately a south-west gale drove the
pack off the shore, and enabled Captain Nares to take
a narrow channel along the coast, and reach “‘ Floe-berg
Beach” facing the great polar ocean, where the vessel
was hauled inside some huge masses of ice, which from
their size and formation, received the name of “‘floe
bergs.”” Here, in 82° 30’ N., within a hundred yards of a
low beach, were her winter quarters, about 50 miles from
* Hans Hendrik was born at the German missionary station of
Fiskernas in Greenland, and had become a good kayaker and hunter
when he agreed to join Dr Kane’s expedition, where he was under the
protection of Carl Petersen. He was with Morton when he reported
having seen the open polar sea. After Kane’s second winter Hans joined
the Arctic Highlanders and married a girl named Markut. Hans and his
wife later joined Hayes’s expedition, and afterwards settled at Upernivik.
In August, 1871, they joined Hall’s expedition, and were left on the floe
which drifted down Baffin’s Bay, where, as we have seen, Hans saved
the rest of the party by his skill as a huntsman. He was most useful
in some of the sledge journeys from the Discovery. In 1877 he wrote
his memoirs in Eskimo, which were translated into English by Dr Rink
(Tribner, 1878). He afterwards lived at Upernivik.
M. I. 20
306 =Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
those of the Discovery. No ship had ever wintered so
far north before. There was some autumn travelling in
spite of soft snow, a depot being laid out forty miles from
the ship. A most severe winter was cheerfully faced, the
men being kept interested and amused with a school,
lectures, and other entertainments, while the Royal
Arctic Theatre was opened again after an interval of
twenty-one years. The chaplain, Mr Pullen, author of
Dame Europa’s School, was fortunately endowed both
with dramatic and poetic talent, adapting plays with
much literary skill and writing excellent verses; and
Dr Moss was an artist of more than ordinary talent.
In other successful expeditions we have had to deal
with the work of strong and healthy men. Now we
have to contemplate the heroic, indeed almost miraculous
efforts of men who attained great results in spite of the
ravages of a terrible and deadly disease. The seeds of
scurvy had taken root throughout the winter, and no
one knew it. The travelling parties had started before
the calamity became known, and of 121 men in the two
ships there were 56 cases of scurvy, 42 in the Alert, but
only 14 in the Discovery, in which ship a larger supply of
fresh meat was obtained from musk oxen.
Captain Nares had now to consider how to carry out
his instructions. He was ordered to reach the highest
latitude, and if possible the Pole itself. Exploration was
to be quite secondary. Before him was a frozen sea
consisting of huge ice masses and lines of heavy crushed-
up ice, and he expected the pack to break up and be
in movement in the spring. He did not think that an
important advance could be made unless a coast-line
could be found trending north. He accordingly deter-
mined to send out three sledge parties, one westward,
another eastward, and another north over the frozen sea,
though he did not expect that the latter could proceed
for any great distance.
A preliminary journey was undertaken to open com-
munication with the Discovery by the two youngest
officers, Egerton and Rawson, with the Dane, Petersen,
and a team of nine dogs. They had hardly gone two
marches when the Dane collapsed, covered with frost
bites, and suffering from cramp. The two young officers
Sub-Lieut. George Le Clerc Egerton, R.N. Lieut. Wyatt Rawson, R.N.
cH.xxxi] Zhe Route by Smith Sound 307
did all that was possible for him, but his condition was so
serious that he had to be put on the sledge and taken
back to the ship. It was found necessary to amputate
both feet, but it was in vain, and he died on the 14th
May. Meanwhile, on March 2oth, Egerton and Rawson
started again, and reached the Discovery}.
The 3rd of April was the day fixed upon for the start
of the main sledge parties, Markham north over the
frozen sea, Aldrich west along the north coast of Ellesmere
Island. Captain Nares, in compliance with his instruc-
tions, decided to send the sledge crews north dragging
two boats as well as their sledge with provisions, which
necessitated going over the same ground four or five
times, thus allowing the travellers only to attain a very
short distance from the ship. Sir Leopold M’Clintock
would have put the whole strength of the expedition
on the northern journey, and would easily have achieved
the distance with healthy men. No boats would have
been taken, but the sledges would have been made
convertible into boats in the event of lanes of water
barring progress. There could be no depots, but sup-
porting sledges would have been used to advance the
main sledge to the pole, and to meet it in returning.
The distance to the Pole and back was much shorter
than some of the sledge journeys successfully made
during the search expeditions. But alas! the indispens-
able condition of healthy men was wanting.
Commander Markham and Lieutenant Parr reached
the autumn depdt at Cape Joseph Henry on the roth
April, 1876, and commenced their journey over the frozen
sea with the thermometer at —33° Fahr. They encoun-
tered small floes surrounded by broad fringes of hummocks,
across which roads had to be made for the sledges. Even
then the sledges could only be got over by standing
pulls, while the ground had to be gone over four times,
dragging up the boat sledges. The work was tremendous,
and the officers worked harder than the men, with less
rest. Soon scurvy began to appear, the two first cases
on the r6th and r7th April. On the r9th Commander
1 Rawson was mortally wounded at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, while
serving as naval aide-de-camp to Sir Garnet Wolseley. Admiral Sir George
Egerton, K.C.B., became Commander-in-Chief at Devcenport.
20-—2
308 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
Markham abandoned one of the boats. On the 24th
the sledge crews were all day cutting a lane through
hummocks. On the 11th May Markham reached the
limit of human endurance and their furthest north in
83° 20’ 26” N. Soundings were taken in 73 fathoms,
showing that they were still on the continental shelf.
On the 13th May the return journey was begun, on the
17th the second boat was abandoned, and on the
5th June the land was reached. Next day Lieutenant
Parr started alone for the ship for help, for only three
men, including Commander Markham, could drag the
sledge. Two men were unable to walk, and were placed
on the sledge; one died. The heroic resolution of all
concerned enabled them to struggle on to the last in
spite of difficulties and hardships, and the courage dis-
played while in the grip of this dread disease was magni-
ficent. The party had gone over 600 miles.
Lieutenant Pelham Aldrich’s western party had mean-
while made important discoveries along the north coast
of Ellesmere Island during an absence of 84 days from
the ship. He travelled over 630 miles, nearly all his
sledge crew being more or less disabled by scurvy. His
most northern point was 83° N., and was named Cape
Columbia.
The third principal effort was to be made along the
north coast of Greenland. From April roth to 18th
Egerton and Rawson crossed the channel between
Greenland and Ellesmere Island to pioneer a route,
returning on the latter date. Lieutenant Beaumont of
the Discovery was to command the party. On the 16th
April he and Dr Coppinger arrived at the Alert with two
8-man sledges. There Rawson joined them with another
sledge, and on the 2oth they all crossed the channel to
Greenland, with a fourth depot sledge. On May 5th
Coppinger parted company, and on the r1th Rawson
followed with a man on his sledge who had shown
symptoms of scurvy.
Beaumont proceeded along the Greenland north coast,
a new discovery. On May roth he reached his turning
point, naming a distant cape to the north-east Cape
Britannia. His furthest point was in 82° 18’ N. and
50° 40’ W.
cH. xxxi] Zhe Route by Smith Sound 309
Soon after the return journey was commenced the
whole sledge crew was attacked with scurvy. Three
only, including Beaumont himself, were able to drag
the sledge, the others being carried forward by relays.
A dreadful disaster seemed imminent, but thanks to
the foresight and energy of Rawson, Coppinger, and the
Eskimo, Hans Hendrik, it was averted. They pushed
forward to the rescue, and when they reached Polaris
Bay only the officers were able to drag. Here there was
a long rest, while the stricken men were revived on fresh
seal meat. On August 8th Beaumont and Coppinger
started to cross the channel to the Discovery with the
now convalescent men, in a 15-ft. ice boat. After a
most arduous and perilous voyage over the drifting ice,
the ship was reached on the 15th. Beaumont had been
away 132 days.
Meanwhile, Lieutenant Archer had discovered and
surveyed a long and narrow fjord running south from
Lady Franklin Bay. This was an admirable piece of
work, but the most important discovery was that of a
deposit of coal of the Miocene period, with many impres-
sions of plants, near the winter quarters of the Discovery.
The outbreak of scurvy led Captain Nares to return
to England, and although the geographical work fell
far short of what would have been achieved had they
escaped the disease, it was still of great interest and value,
while the other scientific results were of the highest import-
ance. Theships reached Portsmouth 2nd November, 1876.
The geographical results were the discovery of 300 miles
of coast-line facing the polar ocean, valuable observations
on the structure of the ice in this region, and, through
the tidal observations, the discovery of the insularity of
Greenland'. The important magnetic, meteorological,
and tidal observations were under the immediate super-
intendence of Captain Nares. The great value of the
other scientific results was mainly due to that very
able naturalist, Captain Feilden. This officer had seen
much service in India during the Mutiny, in China, and
during the Civil War in North America on the Confederate
1 Tidal observations, under the direction of Lieutenant Archer, were
taken in 81° 45’ N., during 7 months; and in 82° 25’ N., for two months.
They were reported upon by Professor Houghton (Nares, 11, p. 356).
310 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
side. His special study was ornithology, but he had
a sound knowledge of other branches of natural history
and of geology, and was indefatigable as an observer and
collector.
Great as the scientific value of the collections was
found to be, the conclusions to be derived from the
discoveries when combined with those of former ex-
peditions were of quite equal importance. We are able
to understand the enormous pressure exerted by the ice
along the newly-discovered coasts, and we see exactly
the same thing as described by M’Clintock on Prince
Patrick. Island, by M’Clure on Banks Island, and by
Collinson, in a less degree, on the coast north of America.
The conclusion was inevitable that a current drives the
ice across the polar ocean from east to west, with a set
down the east coast of Greenland. This discovery threw
a new light on the whole polar economy, and for this
reason, combined with the scientific results, the Nares
expedition must occupy a very high place in the annals
of Arctic enterprise. My own conclusion at the time,
based on the considerations above indicated, was that
there was a deep ocean north of Franz Josef Land, and
that a great result would be obtained by a vessel drifting
across it with the current from Eastern Siberia towards
Greenland.
CHAPTER XXXIV
SIR ALLEN YOUNG AND THE PANDORA.
AMUNDSEN AND THE NORTH WEST PASSAGE
In the same year that the English Arctic expedition
was despatched, Sir Allen Young determined to see
whether it was an open year for passing through the
navigable north-west passage discovered by Sir Leopold
M’Clintock. This depends upon the winds. If very
strong winds from the north have been prevalent, the
passage down Franklin Channel is choked with ice and
impassable. If this has not been the case, the passage
can be made. Sir Allen Young bought the gunboat
Pandora from the Admiralty, a vessel built at Devonport
for speed, and commissioned by my old friend Ruxton
in 1863. She was well strengthened for Arctic work
at Southampton. Allen Young bore the expense with
some assistance from Lady Franklin and Lieutenant
Lillingston, R.N., who went as his chief officer. The
second was Navigating Lieutenant Pirie, and an ardent
young Dutch naval officer named Koolemans Beynen
joined as a volunteer. The Pandora was provided with
a steam cutter, which proved very useful, three whale-
boats, and four other boats.
Allen Young paid a very interesting visit to the
cryolite mine in South Greenland! where he found his
old ship, the Fox. He took in a supply of coals at Kudlisit
in Disco, and was fortunate in passing through the ice
of Melville Bay. After leaving letters for the Alert and
Discovery on one of the Cary Islands, he proceeded up
Lancaster Sound to examine the depdt on Beechey
Island. He then went down Peel Sound in very thick
weather. He was entering upon his own ground, his
1 Ivigiut, the cryolite mine, is about 16 miles up the Arsak fjord.
Cryolite is a white mineral found on the gneiss of S.W. Greenland and
nowhere else—a double hydro-fluorate of soda and alumina. In 1857
a licence was given to a company to work the mine to the amount of
about 26 ship-loads yearly.
312 Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
discoveries during the journey from the Fox in 1859.
Then came a great disappointment. Dense pack ice
extended right across the channel near Levesque Island
and there was nothing to the southward but solid pack,
with a strong ice-blink beyond 72°14’ N. Cape Bird,
the northern portal of Bellot Strait, was distant about
tomiles. Young ascended Roquette Island (about 200 feet)
but there was nothing to be seen but unbroken pack
extending from shore to shore and he inclined to the belief
that the only way was by Bellot Strait. He reluctantly
beat to the northward, and by September 7th was clear of
Lancaster Sound. He landed again at the Cary Islands
and fortunately found letters from the Alert and the
Discovery. These he brought home, arriving at Spithead
October 16th, 1875.
The cause of the Franklin disaster was that no pro-
vision was made against unavoidable detention or other
misfortune, either by stationing a depdét ship to fall back
upon, or by sending a relief ship. I represented to the
Admiralty the importance of taking some such step in the
case of the Nares expedition, and Sir Allen Young agreed
with me. But the Admiralty authorities only awoke to
the necessity when it was too late to send an expedition
themselves. They therefore requested Sir Allen Young to
undertake the duty with the Pandora, giving up his own
cherished plans for the North West Passage. He felt
bound to consent. This time he took Lieutenant
Arbuthnot, R.N., as his second, as well as Navigating
Lieutenant Pirie, Koolemans Beynen, and an Austrian
naval officer, the late Admiral Alois Ritter von Becker.
The Pandora was to take out letters to Littleton Island
or Cape Isabella, and if possible bring back despatches
from Captain Nares.
Sailing in May, 1876, the Pandora again obtained
coal at Kudlisit, and proceeded to Melville Bay, where
a very different reception awaited her from the welcome
she had found in the previous year. The bad time
began with dense fogs. Then she encountered furious
gales, being in great danger from icebergs crushing
through the floes and threatening instant destruction.
At one time she was so severely nipped that every pre-
paration was made to abandon her, and take to the
PIS Jeag ul (SunogX vay ureyded) vzopung sy
nr Ou wp
in,
cH. xxxiv] S7r dllen Young and the Pandora” 313
boats. They had no sooner got into the North Water
of Baffin’s Bay than a gale sprang up off the Cary Islands,
which increased to a frightful storm from the south-east.
No previous voyagers had ever experienced the like in
that part. On the 1st of August it moderated, and a
landing was effected on one of the Cary Islands, but
nothing was found. The Pandora arrived at Littleton
Island, within the entrance of Smith Sound, on the
3rd August.
Allen Young then determined to reach Cape Isabella,
on the west side of Smith Sound, expecting to find des-
patches from the Nares expedition there. In this he was
successful, and Arbuthnot and von Becker went on shore
to examine the cairn which had been erected the previous
year by Commander A. H. Markham on the summit of the
cape. The boat had to be forced through drifting ice, but
reached the shore. A record was found, dated July zoth,
1875, and signed by Nares. Next day Young began to
think that a cask which Arbuthnot believed to be full of
provisions ought to have been examined for letters, and
determined to return to Cape Isabella to do this. As the
Cape was approached, it blew so hard and the sea was so
covered with drifting ice that it was not safe to send a boat,
and for a whole month the vessel fought gales of wind,
drifting floes, and danger in many forms, before a
landing was ultimately effected. The cask was found to
be empty! Nothing remained but to return home, for
all possibility of making their way to the north was pre-
vented by the solid pack. Letters were left at Cape
Isabella and Littleton Island. On the voyage home a
very pleasant visit was paid to the Arctic Highlanders
in Whale Sound, “kind and simple people, robust and
healthy, who offered us everything they had.” On the
r1th September the Pandora left Upernivik, and on the
16th of the following month the Alert and Discovery
were sighted in mid-Atlantic on their voyage home.
Portsmouth was reached on November 3rd, 1876.
The two voyages of the Pandora, under the command
of a great seaman, a great discoverer, and a most popular
commander, are well worthy of record, and Sir Allen
Young’s admirable but modest narrative is a model of
the way in which an Arctic story should be told.
314. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Although Nordenskiéld’s wonderful expedition in the
Vega had brought the protracted struggle for the North
East Passage to a successful conclusion, the North West
Passage, though known throughout the greater part of
its extent, still remained unconquered. It fell to a
Norwegian with seven companions in a small fishing boat
to accomplish this remarkable journey. The Gjoa, a
cutter-rigged herring-boat, fitted with a 13 h.p. motor,
under command of Roald Amundsen, with a crew of
seven men, sailed from Christiania June 16th, 1903, and
arrived off Godhavn on July 24th. Melville Bay offered
fortunate ice conditions, and they reached Dalrymple
Rock, where 105 cases of stores had been left for them,
on August 15th. They now had 4245 gallons of petrol
aboard. Erebus Bay in Beechey I. was reached August
22nd, and the season being an exceptionally favourable
one they made rapid progress, and passing down the east
side of King William Land found Simpson Strait leading
to the westward quite free from ice. But, though it was
tempting to press on, they were on the look-out for a
wintering spot for magnetic observations, and they were
fortunate enough to discover an ideal situation in a small
sheltered bay in the south-east part of King William
Land. Here stores were landed and houses and an obser-
vatory built in mid-September. The bay was named
Gjoahavn. Meanwhile Lund the mate and Hansen the
astronomer were sent to an island in the middle of Simpson
Strait, known to be the resort of reindeer in the autumn,
and returned with twenty. At Hall Point, the southern
end of King William Land, two skeletons of white men
were found, which were considered to be undoubtedly
those of two members of the Franklin expedition, who,
it will be remembered, made their retreat southward
along the western shore of King William Land. Reindeer
became later very numerous even at Gjoahavn itself, as
many as 13 being shot in one day by a single sportsman.
Birds too, such as geese and ptarmigan, were also plentiful.
Later, Eskimos appeared; they were very friendly and
some remained all the winter. They were afterwards
found to be very numerous.
Sledging journeys of a modest nature were made in
the spring and surveys taken, etc. The summer and
CH. XxxIv| dmundsen and the N.-W. Passage 315
autumn passed and they prepared for a second winter
(1904-5). Constant work was carried on at the obser-
vatories. The lowest temperature recorded this winter
was — 50° Fahr., and was thus much milder than the
previous one, when — 80° had been registered, while at:
the end of March the thermometer was + 17° Fahr.,
instead of — 40°. When the weather was sufficiently
established Hansen and Ristvedt started by sledge with
75 days’ provisions to make a rough survey, if possible,
of part of the east side of Victoria Land. They took two
sledges and 12 dogs with their food for 7o days, and
started on April znd. On May 26th they reached their
furthest point north on the western shore of M’Clintock
Channel, and safely returned June 25th, having been
successful in their object.
On August 13th, 1905, the Gjoa once more got under
way on her westward journey. The observations, mag-
netic and other, had been kept continuously for 19 months,
and the large number of Nechilli Eskimos who had been
in their neighbourhood, or had come long distances to see
them, had also given them abundant opportunity for
ethnological notes on these people. Fortune still favoured
the expedition, the sea proved sufficiently clear of ice,
and though they had an anxious time navigating through
the shoals and islands which lay between Nordenskidld I.
and the Royal Geographical Society’s group, they had
cleared Dease Strait on the roth of August, and Union
Strait four davs later. Off Baring Land on August 26th
they met the first whaler from the Bering Strait side, and
had, as they thought, practically accomplished their task.
They were still a long way from having done so, how-
ever, for a few days later they encountered heavy pack at
King Point, off the mouth of the Mackenzie River, and
here they were reluctantly compelled to pass a third
winter. There were many Eskimos here, and at Herschel
I., 35 miles away, five whalers were wintering. While at
King Point the magnetic observer, Wijk, died of pneu-
monia. Early in August, 1906, the Gjoa resumed her
voyage, passed through Bering Strait without further in-
cident, and arrived at Nome August 31st, thus completing
a voyage of extraordinary pluck and endurance, and it
must be added, of scarcely less extraordinary good fortune.
CHAPTER XXXV
WEYPRECHT’S PLAN FOR SYNCHRONOUS OBSERVATIONS.
THE GREELY EXPEDITION
Ow the 18th September, 1875, Lieutenant Weyprecht,
the colleague of Lieutenant Payer when Franz Josef Land
was discovered, delivered an address to a meeting of
German savants at Gratz in which he urged that, in the
greed for discovery, scientific research was often neglected.
The object of Arctic expeditions, he said, should be a
nobler one than mapping and naming ice-bound coasts,
or reaching a higher latitude than a predecessor. The
North Pole, he held, had no greater significance for science
than any other point in the higher latitudes. His con-
tention was that meteorological and magnetic observations,
to be really valuable to science, must be synchronous,
and that they must be taken at selected stations round
the Arctic regions, the instruments identical, the instruc-
tions identical, and the observations synchronous for at
least a year.
Lieutenant Weyprecht’s views received respectful
attention, and were adopted by an international polar
conference at Hamburg in 1879 and by another at
St Petersburg in 1882. Proposals were then made to all
the countries likely to take part, and finally the following
arrangements were made to carry out Weyprecht’s
scheme,
The United States agreed to station Lieutenant Ray
at Point Barrow, and Lieutenant Greely at Lady Franklin
Bay, in Smith Sound. The Austrians sent Captain
Wohlgemuth to Jan Mayen Island, and the Germans
Dr Giese to Cumberland Inlet in Davis Strait. England
arranged for observations to be taken at Fort Rae on the
Great Slave Lake, Russia established stations at Novaya
Zemlya and at the mouth of the Lena, and the Danes sent
Dr Paulsen to Godthaab in Greenland. The Swedes were
CH. XXXv] The Greely Expedition 317
represented by Dr Ekholm at Ice Fjord in Spitsbergen,
and the Norwegians observed at the Alten Fjord. The
Dutch intended to establish a station at Port Dickson in
Siberia, but unfortunately the vessel conveying the ob-
server and his instruments was wrecked. The synchronous
observations were commenced at these stations in the
summer of 1882, and continued for a year, in accordance
with the previously arranged plan.
One of these expeditions, the only one which concerns
our subject, combined geographical discovery with the
main object—that sent up Smith Sound by the United
States. It was composed entirely of officers and men of
the army, under the command of Lieutenant Greely of
the Signal Corps. Under him the officers were Lieu-
tenants Kislingbury and Lockwood, and Dr Pavy as
surgeon and naturalist. There were five sergeants be-
longing to the signal corps, three of infantry, and two
of cavalry, altogether ten sergeants, one corporal, nine
privates, and two Eskimo hunters. The steamer Proteus
was hired to land the party at Lady Franklin Bay,
the Discovery’s winter quarters. This was effected on
August 18th, 1881, and as soon as the stores and provi-
sions were landed and the house erected, the Proteus
departed.
It was arranged that the Pyvoteus should return to
bring the observers home in the summer of 1882, but
no other precaution was taken. It was quite possible
that a vessel might find it impracticable to reach Lady
Franklin Bay owing to ice conditions, or that she might
founder, as actually happened. The commander of the
expedition ought to have insisted upon a depét being
landed at Cape Sabine, or some other point in Smith
Sound, complete in all respects for 24 men for nine
months; such a depot as Captain Kellett left at Melville
Island. The neglect of this precaution was disastrous.
The house at Lady Franklin Bay, which was named
Conger, was comfortable, and the various observations,
meteorological, magnetic, pendulum, and tidal were com-
menced. But unfortunately the personnel of the expedi-
tion did not form a very united family. There was
resistance to the Commander’s instructions for winter
routine. Lieutenant Kislingbury resigned his appoint-
318 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParT1
ment in the expedition and wished to return, but was
too late. He remained as a volunteer. The surgeon was
frequently insubordinate and was at last put under arrest,
and later there was trouble with one of the sergeants
named Cross. Lieutenant Lockwood was the life and
soul of the expedition. He undertook short journeys in
the autumn, laying out depdts, and upwards of a hundred
musk oxen were seen, and many shot, so that fresh
meat could be served out three times a week. During
the dark winter months Lieutenant Lockwood edited a
paper entitled The Arctic Moon, with illustrations by
himself.
An expedition along the north coast of Greenland
had been decided upon, and during March Lieutenant
Lockwood undertook a preliminary journey across the
channel to Thank God Harbour, visiting Hall’s grave.
A depét was also placed at Cape Sumner.
On the 2nd April Lockwood’s expedition started,
consisting of the dog-sledge Antoinette with a team
of eight dogs, and some supporting sledges. At Cape
Britannia on the north coast of Greenland, near Beau-
mont’s furthest, all the supporting sledges were sent
back, a depot was left, and on April 30th Lockwood
proceeded with Sergeant Brainard and the Eskimo
Frederick. The sledge was loaded with 25 days’ rations
for three persons weighing 230 lb., 300 Ib. of dog pem-
mican, constant weights 176 lb., the sledge itself 80 Ib.,
total 786 lb. As they advanced the snow became soft,
and a portion of the load was thrown off, to be picked
up on the return journey. The ice foot further on was
smooth and the dogs went at a trot, the men sitting on
the sledge by turns. On the r4th May they reached
their furthest point, which was called Lockwood Island.
On the 15th observations were taken, the result being
Lat. 83° 24’ N., Long. 40° 46’ 30” W. The return was
without incident, and Conger was reached June rst.
The dogs had done well and enabled a good journey of
two months to be made.
Lockwood’s coast-line extends for tro miles of longi-
tude, or altogether 150 miles. It consists of a succession
of high, rocky, and precipitous promontories, with inter-
vening inlets, and a mass of snow-clad mountains inland.
CH. XXXV] The Greely Expedition 3219
Along the shore was what was called a tidal crack, varying
in width, supposed to be caused by the motion of the
polar pack. Lieutenant Greely rightly concluded from
the regularity of the surface in the fjords or inlets, that
this was really the north coast of Greenland, and not a
separate land as later alleged by Peary.
Greely himself started on an expedition inland on
June 26th, and this journey, combined with a shorter
one in the spring, resulted in the discovery of an extensive
lake, and enabled him to obtain a clear idea of this part
of the great island, his furthest point being 175 miles
from Conger. A number of Eskimo bone implements and
remains of sledges, of considerable antiquity, were found
and brought back. But now began the first hint of the
misfortunes that were to befall them. The Proteus, the
relief vessel which was to bring the expedition home,
was anxiously expected but never arrived, and a second
winter had therefore to be faced.
On April 25th, 1883, Lieutenant Lockwood started for
a month’s exploration westward. He succeeded in crossing
the island to a fjord on the west coast to which he gave
the name of Greely, and down this he and Sergeant
Brainard travelled for 25 miles. To the south of the
fjord the country appeared to be covered by an immense
ice-cap with an unbroken series of cliffs from 125 to 200
feet in height.
It was decided to commence a retreat on the r8th
August, with a steam launch, a whale-boat, and two
English ice-boats, carrying 50 days’ provisions, to take
them to Cape Dobbin, where they expected to find a
ship. All the records of observations as well as the
reports of sledge journeys were placed in tin cases care-
fully soldered. They picked up the English depdt at
Cape Collinson (240 rations of meat and 120 of bread)
and reached Cape Hawke with 60 days’ provisions. On
October 2nd they landed at Wade Point with 35 days’
food for 25 men. All the boats, except one ice-boat,
had been abandoned. On the goth Sergeant Rice arrived
at Cape Sabine and obtained news. The Proteus had
foundered on the 23rd July, and her commander Lieu-
tenant Garlington and crew had escaped to the east
coast. The English depdt was found. The members of
320) 8©6A rctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
the expedition reached Cape Sabine and built a hut with
the boat for aroof. Greely was obliged, on November Ist,
to reduce the daily rations to the smallest amount
that would support life—meat 4 oz. and biscuit 6 0z.,
altogether a total of only 14} oz. There were some
instances of theft of rum and provisions, but not many.
In January Sergeant Cross died. Though some of the
party were indefatigable in searching for game they were
not fortunate, the bag consisting only of one small
seal, one bear, twenty-four foxes, fourteen ptarmigan
and sixty dovekies. The last issue of rations was on
May 24th, after which the deaths from starvation began,
though during May Sergeant Brainard had managed to
get 475 lb. of shrimps and 81 lb. of sea-weed. That
gallant and loyal soldier, James Lockwood, died on the
oth April, Dr Pavy on the 16th, and Kislingbury on the
tst June. Greely was left without an officer. All the
non-commissioned officers, except Brainard, fell victims
of starvation, as well as six of the privates and the two
Eskimos. Private Henry had been detected stealing
bacon, and afterwards strips of leather. He was stronger
than any of the others, and they became frightened of
him, so Lieutenant Greely ordered him to be shot. This
was done on June 6th, 1884. The six survivors, Greely,
Brainard, Connell, Long, Fredericks, and Biederlich, were
reduced to the very last extremity when on June 22nd a
relief vessel arrived, commanded by Captain Sedley, and
saved them.
Greely was in a most difficult position during the
expedition owing to the insubordination of two out of
three of his officers, which set a bad example to the men.
There were possibly faults on both sides, and Greely may
have been injudicious, but he conducted an exceptionally
arduous and difficult service with ability and consideration
for others, and to the very last did not fail in his duty to
those dependent upon him.
Lieutenant (now General) Greely succeeded in bringing
back the most valuable part of his work. It is published
in two large quarto volumes which are admirably edited
(Washington, 1888). The work opens with Greely’s lucid
and thoroughly honest report, and contains the reports
and diaries of all the sledge travellers, and the meteoro-
CH, XXXV] The Greely Expedition BIT
logical, tidal, and magnetic observations during the whole
sojourn in Lady Franklin Bay.
Lieutenant P. H. Ray carried out the Weyprecht
scheme at Point Barrow with diligence and ability. His
results, contained in a large quarto volume (Washington,
1885), in addition to the narrative, comprise the meteoro-
logical, magnetic, and tidal observations, together with
ethnographical and linguistic studies of the natives of
Point Barrow.
21
CHAPTER XXXVI
THE NORTH EAST PASSAGE—NORDENSKIOLD—
WIGGINS—DE LONG
",NORDENSKIOLD is a name which not only recalls much
and varied Arctic work, but also most valuable researches
connected with historical geography. Its bearer, the
late Nils Adolf Erik, Baron Nordenskidld, was born at
Helsingfors in 1832, of an ancient and distinguished
Swedish family settled in Finland. His father was a
well-known man of science, and the young Nordenskidld
became a trained chemist and mineralogist. He settled
at Stockholm in 1857 and soon began to turn his attention
to Arctic exploration. In 1858 he was geologist in
Torell’s Spitsbergen expedition; in 1861, with Duner, he
was taking preliminary observations for the Spitsbergen
measurement of an arc of the meridian; in 1868 he
reached the highest northern latitude attained by a ship;
in 1870 he made his first journey over the inland ice of
Greenland: and, later, he wintered in Spitsbergen and
made the inland journey across North-East Island. The
funds for these expeditions were to a large extent supplied
by Baron Oscar Dickson, the munificent supporter of
Swedish Arctic enterprise.
In 1873 Nordenskidld turned his attention to the
North East Passage by the Siberian coast, believing that
it might become a highway for commerce. In that year
he reached the Yenisei by the Kara Sea, and discovered
an excellent harbour which he named after his generous
supporter, Oscar Dickson. In 1875 he again crossed the
Kara Sea in the Ymer. These were pioneer voyages.
His great expedition, with the financial support of King
Oscar, of Oscar Dickson, and of the Russian merchant
Sibirikoff, was fitted out in 1878.
A ship named the Vega, built at Bremen in 1872, of
oak with a skin of greenheart, was purchased. She was
of 300 tons, 150 ft. long, by 29 ft. beam, and 16 ft.
cH.xxxvI] The North-East Passage 323
depth of hold, barque rigged, with a screw propeller and
engines of 60 horse-power. The leader of the expedition
was Nordenskidld himself, the captain of the ship
Lieutenant Louis Palander, a distinguished Swedish
naval officer who had previously been in Spitsbergen
with Nordenskidld. The other officers were Lieutenant
Brusewitz of the Swedish navy, Lieutenant Hovgaard of
the Danish navy, Lieutenant Bove of the Italian navy,
and Lieutenant Nordqvist of the Russian army. There
were also three scientific men (one being the surgeon),
two engineers, a boatswain, and 15 seamen of the Swedish
navy, besides three Norwegian seal-fishers, 30 all told.
The Vega took 300 tons of coal and two years’ provisions,
and was accompanied by two of Sibirikoff’s cargo vessels
for the Yenisei, and the Lena for the river of that name.
The Vega left Troms6 on the 21st July, 1878, with the
three other vessels in company, and anchored in Pet
Strait, between Waigats Island and the mainland of the
Samoyeds, on the 30th. The ship stood out into the Kara
Sea, and rounded White Island. There seems to be little
or no risk of running ashore on the coast, for the currents
from the Obi and Yenisei flow northward at a rate of
two to five miles. All went well, and on the 6th August
the Vega and Lena were safely anchored in Dickson
Harbour, while Sibirikoff’s two vessels proceeded up the
Yenisei river.
From this point the exploring voyage began, and was
well described in Palander’s letters to me at the time.
Cape Taimyr was reached on the roth of August, and floe
ice was encountered with thick fogs. It may be men-
tioned that very important corrections of longitude had
to be made all along the Siberian coast, and between
Dickson Harbour and Cape Taimyr several islands pre-
viously unknown were discovered.
On the roth of August the Vega rounded Cape
Chelyuskin, the most northern point of the Old World,
which was found to be in 77°36’ N. and 103° 25’ E.
Palander then stood more out to sea in hopes of finding
unknown islands, but the quantity of drift ice by which
the ship was soon surrounded led him to seek the coast
again, and he found a navigable though narrow channel
between the land and the pack. On August 28th the
2i—2
324 <dyrctic and Antarctic Exploration [Part
Vega was off the mouth of the Lena, and the little
steamer destined for service on that river parted company.
The strong current from the river Lena sent the Vega
70 miles to the north. It was observed that in all the
islands on the Siberian coast the northern sides were
quite precipitous, while those towards the coast were
low, often sloping into sand-banks. Until September 3rd
there was beautiful weather with little ice, and the Bear
Islands, 35 miles from the mouth of the Kolyma, were
reached. Here the four basaltic pillars, 44 feet high,
reported by Wrangel, were sighted, looking exactly like
four lighthouses. Here also the explorers had their first
snow-fall, and the ship was stopped by heavy floes
cemented together, so Palander again made for the land,
and found a narrow channel. This eastern part of the
voyage was by far the most difficult, and very slow
progress was made in shallow water, with much drift
ice and fog, the steam launch being constantly ahead
sounding. From the 8th to the r1th, when Cape Jakan
was passed, the explorers were working through pack ice
with a depth of only four fathoms. But fortune, which
had hitherto been so propitious, now deserted them, and
on the 28th September the Vega, when almost within
reach of success, was forced to winter on the coast and
remain for nearly ten months. Palander thought, how-
ever, that 1878 was a bad ice year, and that generally
a vessel with steam power could pass from Norway to
Japan in one season.
On the 18th of July, 1879, a strong south wind drifted
the ice off the shore, and the Vega was free. On the 2oth
she passed East Cape, and Bering Strait was crossed
several times for the purpose of taking soundings. They
were at Bering Island on August 14th, and Yokohama
was reached on the 2nd September, 1879. The hearty
welcome that Nordenskidld received on his return from
this famous voyage was worthy of the great explorer’s
well-established position in the world of science.
The results of Nordenskidld’s famous voyage were the
correction of the longitudes along the coast of Siberia,
the numerous soundings (no less than 5000 casts of the
lead having been taken), the observations and collections,
and not least, the lengthened study of the Tchuktchi
Eee
cu.xxxvi] The North-East Passage 325
race which they had been able to make during the long
detention in winter quarters. The two divisions of coast
and reindeer Tchuktchis numbered 3000, The former daily
visited the Vega during the winter, in parties numbering
from ten to twenty, were allowed to go where they liked,
and never attempted to steal anything. Palander found
them good-natured, friendly, hospitable, and honest.
Nordenskiéld’s activities did not cease with this, the
greatest of his achievements. He made a second journey
over the inland ice of Greenland, effected a landing
on the east coast, and encouraged the aspirations of
young men such as Bjérling and Kallstenius, whose
melancholy fate was a cause of sorrow to him}. After
he was ennobled Nordenskidld lived chiefly at his beautiful
country seat of Dalbyo, where I twice visited him. His
latest labours, in bringing to light and publishing medieval
maps and charts and portolans in two splendid volumes,
were not the least important. His researches and dis-
coveries threw much new light on the history of
cartography. When he died a vast amount of knowledge
died with him, and there passed away from among us an
illustrious man of science, a great explorer, a great
geographer, and a man of whom his countrymen may well
be proud?.
While Nordenskidld was engaged in his Siberian
labours, there was an enthusiastic English master mariner
who was also filled with the idea of opening a trade with
Russia by the Arctic Sea. Joseph Wiggins was born in
1832 at Norwich, between which place and London his
father drove the ‘‘Nelson”’ coach three times a week, until
railroads superseded coaches. At fourteen Joseph went to
1 In 1892 these two young Swedish enthusiasts started with the object
of exploring the part of Ellesmere Island between Jones and Smith Sounds.
They bought a small cutter of 37 tons at St John’s, Newfoundland, and
went up Baffin’s Bay to the Cary Islands. In 1893 a whaler found her
driven on shore at one of the Cary Islands and full of ice. There was a
record written by Bjérling asking that, if nothing was heard of them
in 1893, relief might be sent to Clarence Point on Ellesmere Island. They
went away in an open boat. I appealed for funds and collected {roo as a
help to Nordenskiéld’s fund for sending a steamer. She went, but nothing
more was ever found or heard of these gallant youths.
2 Both his sons inherited much of the ability of their father. The
eldest died young, but not before he had done valuable ethnographic
work. The younger, Erland, now Baron Nordenskidld, has made two
journeys among the Amazonian Indians, with excellent ethnographic
and linguistic results.
326 §=©6© Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
sea, and became master of a ship trading to the Mediter-
ranean when he was twenty-one. From 1868 to 1874 he
was examiner in navigation at Sunderland, and in the
latter year his mind became full of ideas about opening a
Russian trade by the north. He was a practical and very
persevering man, with whom thought was soon followed
by action. On June 3rd, 1874, he sailed in the Diana of
03 tons, successfully crossed the ice-bound Kara Sea to
the river Obi, and returned. In 1875 he went to Archangel
in a Yarmouth ship, called the William. In 1876, with help
from the Russian merchant Sibirikoff and Mr Gardiner,
he sailed in the Thames of 120 tons, and reached the
Yenisei river. Leaving her there with the crew on board,
he returned overland by way of Petrograd. He went out
again to his ship, accompanied by Mr Seebohm, the
distinguished ornithologist, who had long desired to
investigate the bird-life of this region. They arrived at
the town of Yeniseisk on April 5th, 1877, and reached the
Thames at the Kureika, lower down the river Yenisei,
on the 23rd. The crew were in good health, but the ship
had to be cut out of the ice. No sooner was the Thames
free than she ran on a sand-bank on her way down the
river and was finally abandoned. The Ibis, a little vessel
belonging to Seebohm, was uninjured, but all the crew of
the Thames except three refused to go home in her. Mr
Seebohm, who made a valuable ornithological collection,
calculated that 50,000 acres of ice passed down the river
in the spring, at the rate of ten to twenty miles an hour,
and his description of the break-up of the ice on these
great Siberian rivers is of extraordinary interest. He
returned home overland, as did Wiggins and the rest of
the crew of the Thames.
The next venture of Wiggins was very successful.
In concert with Mr Oswald Cattley, who chartered the
Warkworth of 650 tons for a voyage to the Obi, he sailed
from Liverpool on August rst, 1878, reached the Obi,
and was back in the Thames by October 2nd with a
cargo of wheat. In 1879 speculators rushed in and
spoiled the business. Nine large steamers, all quite unfit
for ice navigation, were chartered for the Obi, where
5000 tons of Siberian goods were ready for them. But
the masters of the steamers were frightened of the ice
cH.xxxvI]_ The North-East Passage 327
and came home without cargoes, thus thoroughly dis-
crediting the enterprise. Wiggins gave it up in disgust,
but some years afterwards, encouraged by Sir Robert
Morier, the English Ambassador at Petrograd, he was
induced to take the Phoenix of 273 tons to the Yenisei,
and he made several other voyages until 1896. This
fine specimen of an English master mariner had become
a perfect pilot of the Kara Sea, and a most worthy
successor of Burrough, Pet, and Jackman. I had the
pleasure of presenting him with one of the awards of the
Royal Geographical Society for his excellent services in
the Kara Sea, and he received other recognitions. He
died, aged 73, on September 13th, 1905}.
Another expedition, connected more or less with the
voyage of Nordenskidld and the Siberian Sea, was planned
and commanded by Lieutenant George W. De Long of
the United States Navy, and financed by Mr Gordon
Bennett of the New York Herald. The expedition had
the great advantage of being under naval discipline, the
commander receiving instructions from the Secretary of
the Navy. Mr Gordon Bennett induced Sir Allen Young
to sell him the Pandora as the vessel for the new expedi-
tion. At this time Lieutenant De Long was in England,
and I had the pleasure of making his acquaintance. He
was a good seaman, a scientific officer, and an agreeable
companion. Trained to the management and care of
seamen De Long was undoubtedly the best of all the
American arctic commanders, and he well fulfilled the
trust that was placed in him. The Pandora was taken
to San Francisco—for the object of the expedition was
1 Sir Frndtjof Nansen, in an Appendix to his Through Siberia, has lately
made a record of all voyages across the Kara Sea from the voyage of
Burrough in 1556 to the present day, with notes on the state of the ice in
each year. His conclusion is that in the great majority of years it is possible
to reach the Siberian rivers through the Kara Sea, though there are great
variations in the quantity of ice in different years. He thinks it very im-
probable that these differences are caused by winds and sea currents from
the north. His conclusion is that the ice that is met with is formed in the
Kara Sea itself, and that the differences of ice conditions are caused by
differences in the winters. In a cold winter, with little precipitation, more
ice will be formed, and little ice will melt in a cold spring and summer.
When there is a warm winter and heavy snowfall succeeded by a warm
spring and summer, the melting of the ice will proceed rapidly, and there will
be a fairly ice-free Kara Sea. Nansen’s remarks on the navigation of the
Kara Sea are extremely valuable, based on the most complete information
and long experience of ice conditions.
328 §=©9Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [partT!
to make discoveries by way of Bering Strait—but,
ignoring the vessel’s previous fine record, and in spite of
sailors’ customs and beliefs, her name was changed to
the Jeannette.
Captain De Long was accompanied by two naval
lieutenants, Danenhower and Chipp, and a naval engineer,
Melville, with Dr Ambler as surgeon, and the ice pilot
Dunbar. The expedition, with 32 men and 40 dogs, left
San Francisco on 8th July, 1879, a few days before
Nordenskidld got free from his winter quarters among
the Tchuktchis. Passing through Bering Strait and
sighting Herald Island, the vessel was soon afterwards
beset and drifted helplessly to the north-west. De Long’s
hope was that she would be freed when she reached a
part of the ocean far from land where the floes might
disperse, but this never happened. Two winters were
passed during this wearisome drift, but De Long knew
how to keep up the spirits of his people by his own
unfailing cheerfulness, and by promoting good-fellowship
and various amusements. On March rath, 1881, they
were in 74° 54’ N., having drifted 320 miles to the north-
west since sighting Herald Island, but they were still on
the continental shelf, the depth being only 38 fathoms,
increasing, after a month, to 85 fathoms. The rate of
drift seemed to increase. From April 21st to 25th it was
47 miles, in a direction N.69°W. On May 16th, in
76° 47' N., a small island was sighted, and on the 24th
another in 77° 8’ N. A dog sledge, under Melville, was
sent to visit one of them, returning on June 5th. They
were outliers of the Liakhov group, and were named
Jeannette and Henrietta Islands respectively. On June
t1th the depth was only 33 fathoms, and the ice was
in a threatening condition. Suddenly the vessel was
subjected to tremendous pressure. Provisions and every-
thing that could be saved were at once got out on the
ice together with the boats, and on June 12th, 1881,
after long and faithful service on the African coast, in
Baffin’s Bay, Peel Sound, and Smith Sound, and lastly in
this long drift, the staunch old gunboat sank to the
bottom of the Siberian Sea.
De Long found himself in command of a whale-boat
and two cutters, with 4950 lb. of pemmican and 1120 lb.
cH. xxxvI] Zhe North-East Passage 329
of biscuit and 32 souls to save from death. Their position
was in 77° 14’ 57” N. and 154° 58’ E., far away from land.
The boats were mounted and secured on sledges, and
held ten men each, the first with De Long and Ambler,
the second with Melville and Danenhower, and the third
with Chipp and Dunbar. There were six tents.
De Long made for the Liakhov or New Siberian
Islands, but with much soft snow and dangerous openings
in the ice their progress was slow. On July 29th land
was discovered in 76° 38’17” N., the most northern of
the New Siberian group, consisting of volcanic rock, with
a vein of bituminous coal. It received the name of
Bennett Island. All were then well, with 23 dogs, and
30 days’ provisions, but De Long himself was suffering
much from the state of his feet. From the New Siberian
Islands the three boats then started for the mouth of the
Lena, De Long intending to lead his people to the first
Russian settlement he could find.
In crossing from the island to the Siberian coast the
boats encountered a furious gale of wind and were
separated. Chipp and his boat’s crew were never heard
of again. Melville and Danenhower, however, with their
men, landed on one part of the Lena delta, and De Long
on another. The latter in vain tried to find their way to
a Russian settlement. Provisions failed, and all, save two,
perished. Melville and Danenhower were more fortunate,
reaching Yakutsk on the 30th December, 1881, and Melville
at once organised a search for his lost commander.
A relief expedition had meanwhile been fitted out at
San Francisco, and in June 1881 the Rodgers sailed under
the command of Lieutenant Berry, U.S.N. That intel-
ligent officer made a complete survey and examination
of the small Wrangell Island, in sight from Cape Chelag-
skoi, about which Dr Petermann and others had written
so inaccurately. He wintered in St Lawrence Bay, and
then made his way to Yakutsk, to join Melville in the
search. The bodies of De Long and Ambler were found
close to each other on the island of Boren-Bjelkoi; they
had died nobly, martyrs to science, and devoted to duty
to the last.
De Long was a naval officer of promise, and a noble
character. He impressed me greatly with his thorough-
330 © A vctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParT1
ness. In his last letter to his wife he wrote: “I feel my
responsibility, and I hope I appreciate the delicate position
I am placed in, of leading and directing so many people
of my own age. I hope God will aid me in what I have
undertaken, and will bring me through it in safety and
with credit.”” Mrs De Long resolved to publish the whole
of her husband’s copious journals, and she acted wisely,
for they form one of the most interesting of Arctic books.
She wrote to me—what every reader will endorse—“ the
journals show so convincingly the zeal, perseverance, and
devotion of the leader, that I am anxious that they should
have as large a circulation as possible.”
De Long’s expedition, though unfortunate, was not
without useful results. The history of the drift, so
carefully and accurately recorded, is valuable geographi-
cally and will always be of assistance to future explorers.
CHAPTER XXXVII
GREENLAND AND ITS INLAND ICE—NORDENSKIOLD,
NANSEN, PEARY
Tue inland ice of Greenland was for centuries one of
the greatest Arctic problems—an entirely unknown area
of 750,000 square miles. So little was its formation
understood in the first half of the eighteenth century
that Governor Claus Paars, Greenland’s first and only
governor, took out horses with the idea of riding across
it to the supposed lost colony on the east side. He
was disabused when he sailed up to the end of the
Amaralikfjord, reached the inland ice and, after a march
of two hours, was stopped by a crevasse.
No one knew what there might be within that vast
region. The Eskimos were often on its edge when hunting
the reindeer, but had never ventured far. They were
terrified at the mighty solitude. At last curiosity over-
came fear in the case of a trader named Lars Dalager,
who was at Frederikshaab, one of the most southern
Greenland stations. With a few Eskimos, he went up
to the head of a fjord to the south of the wsblink on
September 2nd, 1751, and advanced for a few days over
very rough ice. He noticed the extreme cold of the
inland ice and sighted mountain peaks which he supposed
to be on the eastern coast, but they have since been
found to be nunataks or mountain peaks rising out of
the great snowy expanse. He returned to his boat after
five days. The men of science who visited Greenland
somewhat later, Fabricius in the days of Krantz, and the
German Geisecke in 1806-13, only reached the edge of °
the inland ice, though it engaged much of their attention.
The well-known Alpine traveller Whymper made two
attempts from Disco Bay in 1867 and 1872, but without
result. Several persons, such as Steenstrup, Kornerup,
and Holm, made observations on the rate of movement
of the glaciers and it was found to vary in different
localities.
332 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTt
The first really serious expeditions were those of
Nordenskiéld in 1870 and 1883. In the former year the
accomplished Swedish explorer selected the northern
arm of the Auleitsivik fjord, twenty miles north of
Godthaab, as his point of entrance into the unknown.
He was accompanied by the botanist Dr Berggren. On
the rgth July they reached the ice cap by a cleft, and
finding the surface impassable for a sledge they abandoned
it, and went on with a few necessaries on their backs.
Passing the region of broken-up ice and cleft and favoured
by good weather, they came to a perceptible rise, with
a smoother surface, and reached their furthest point
2200 feet above the sea and 30 miles west of the Auleit-
sivik fjord, returning after six days. Nordenskidld found
rivers and streams on the surface. The explorers went
along the bank of one great river until the whole mass
of water poured down a perpendicular cleft into the
depths.
In 1883 Nordenskidld again came out to Greenland in
the steamer Sophia, funds being supplied by Baron Oscar
Dickson, that munificent supporter of Arctic research.
Nordenskidld believed that the inland ice was not an
unbroken mass, but that there were islands with bare
rocks and some vegetation, the abode of reindeer and
ptarmigan. He started from the same place as in 1870,
with a party of ten, including two Lapps with skz. In
18 days they had advanced 73 miles and attained a
height of 5000 feet. They were stopped by soft sludgy
snow, but Nordenskidld sent on the Lapps, who returned
with a report that they had been 145 miles further,
reaching a height of 5800 feet, and that there was nothing
but an endless unbroken surface of snow. Yet the sight
of two ravens rather confirmed Nordenskidld in the belief
that the expanse of snow was relieved by oases. The great
Swedish savant was 31 days on the inland ice.
Meanwhile, Dr Rink, the learned and accomplished
Danish Inspector of Greenland, had warmly advocated
further research as far back as 1876. The Danish savant
Steenstrup observed the rate of movement of glaciers in
1876 and 1877, and in 1878 an expedition was undertaken
into the interior by Lieutenant Jensen. This was a very
interesting journey and revealed the character of the
Adolf Erik Nordenskiold
cH. xxxvil] Greenland and its Inland Ice 333
inland ice in the far south. Jensen entered by the
Fredrickshaab zsblink, and crossed the expanse of snow
as far as the Nasuasak nunatak, which was one of the
peaks seen by Dalager, 4700 feet above the sea. He had
three small one-man sledges with three weeks’ provisions.
The ice was very rough and broken, and the men suffered
from snow blindness. But the nunataks were reached,
and Jensen ascended one of them to a height of 5000 feet,
obtaining an extensive view. They are known as the
Jensen nunataks. The journey on the inland ice occupied
31 days, from July 3rd to August 3rd.
The next attempt was made in 1886 by Peary in Disco
Bay, in the same place that Whymper had previously
selected. Robert Peary was a civil engineer employed in
the American naval dockyard service; a very resolute
and determined man who had conceived the ambition of
taking a share in Arctic discovery. His companion was
the Danish lieutenant Maigaard. Their point of entrance
was in 69°30’. They took thirty days’ provisions, which
were carried on two sledges, 9g feet long and 13 inches
wide, weighing 23 lb. each, their shelter for the night
being a tarpaulin between the sledges. They advanced
over the inland ice for 24 days, from June 8th to July 2nd,
meeting with a ‘‘fohn” wind which made the snow soft
and sticky, and they were also delayed by snowstorms.
In returning, the wind was at their backs, so they rigged
up the tarpaulin on some alpenstocks and sailed back at
great speed, 22, 27, and even more miles a day. They
returned on July 24th.
The name of Fridtjof Nansen will for ever be coupled
with the first crossing of the inland ice of Greenland. It
was here that his genius in conceiving a great plan for
discovery, his ability as a leader, and his mastery of
details first began to develop, From the first he was
something more than an explorer. Born on the 18th of
October, 1861, young Nansen was of good lineage on
both sides, and in his after life he proved the truth
of Holberg’s saying ‘““Det er min tro noget i at vaere
kommen af godt folk.’’ He became a naturalist, and as
his character developed its chief points were devoted
patriotism, breadth of view, and love of science, above
all of scientific accuracy. He had reached the age of 27,
334 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
when, after a study of the labours of Jensen and Norden-
skidld, he resolved to achieve the crossing of Greenland,
conceiving that science would benefit more especially by
discoveries respecting the meteorology of the inland ice.
Nansen, who had determined on crossing from east to
west, had already been for a cruise on the east coast of
Greenland and had made acquaintance with the character
of its difficult navigation. The study of the necessary
equipment was undertaken with his never-failing care and
intelligence. His party was to number six, and he had
to consider the nature of the ground and the climate,
while, as in all Arctic travelling, lightness had to be the
main consideration. His sledges, of which he took five,
were of ash, the upper part light and slender. They
weighed 28 lb., and were 94 feet long by 20 inches wide,
the runners shod with thin steel plates. They were
turned up at both ends, with a chair-back-like bow for
pushing and steering, and every joint was lashed, no
metal being used.
The tent was in five pieces of waterproof canvas, with
two uprights and one cross pole of bamboo, the guy-ropes
made fast to crampon-like hooks. The sleeping bags were
of reindeer skin, with hood-shaped flaps to button over
the head, each to hold three men.
Nansen rightly decided that woollen clothes were the
best, as avoiding condensation. He paid specially close
attention to the foot gear. Woollen stockings were worn
next the skin, then thick goat’s-hair socks, and over
these came the jimneskos of the Lapps with the hair
outside, stuffed, as is the Lapp custom, with a grass
(Carex vesicavia). Large woollen mitts were used, and
fur caps with ear-flaps. The cooking apparatus consisted
of a spirit-lamp with a copper tin-lined boiler above, tall
and cylindrical, with a copper flue carried through the
centre, by which the hot air passed to a broader and
shallower copper vessel over the boiler to melt snow in,
all cased in thick felt. With this apparatus and 12 oz.
of spirits a gallon of chocolate and rather less of water
was obtained in an hour. The provisions consisted of
Beauvais dried meat (which contained insufficient fat),
meat biscuits, chocolate with meat powder, pea soup
with fat, and tea. Some luxuries such as condensed milk
cH.xxxvul] Greenland and tts [Inland Ice 335
and whortleberry jam were taken, but Nansen was very
strongly opposed to the use of spirits and tobacco, as
being injurious stimulants. The instruments consisted of
a theodolite and stand, a pocket sextant, artificial horizon,
azimuth compass, four watches, thermometer, boiling-
point thermometer, and aneroids. Four of the sledges
when loaded had a weight of 200 lb. each, the fifth of
400 lb.
Nansen was a master of ski-travel. This method of
winter locomotion has been used by his countrymen from
time immemorial, and by himself from childhood, and
truly the speed attained and the feats performed by
Norwegian experts are marvellous. On very soft snow,
however, the Canadian snow-shoe is preferable.
Of his five comrades Otto Sverdrup was the son of a
Helgeland farmer with forest property, and was born on
October 31st, 1855. He had been 17 years at sea. Olaf
Dietrichsen, a surgeon and a keen sportsman, was aged 25,
and Kristian Trana, aged 24, was a forester. The others
were two Lapps, both young men,
The expedition started in June, 1888, and the Jason,
a Norwegian sealer, took them to the edge of the ice on
the east coast of Greenland and some distance into it.
The explorers then took to their boats, but it was long
before they could reach the land. Drifted to the south,
they came to an Eskimo encampment at Cape Bille, and
having reached the inner lead of water on the 15th August,
boats were at length hauled up on the beach and the
great journey was commenced. From the 17th to the
20th they were detained by storms with heavy rain, but
the 22nd saw the ascent commenced in fine weather.
The ice was heavily crevassed and nunataks were visible
here and there.
By the 26th the party had reached a height of 6000 ft.,
and by the end of the month the elevation was 7930 ft.
Hitherto they had worn Canadian snow-shoes, but on
September 2nd it was found that ski could be used, even
when dragging the sledges, and the national mode of
progression was gladly adopted for the remaining nineteen
days. The explorers were surprised at the great difference
between the temperature of day and night on this lofty
plateau in September. The thermometer showed — 4°
336 =©6 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
in the day, and — 40° Fahr. at night. Furious gales of
wind were frequent.
The summit was 8250 ft. above the sea, and from
September 17th there was a pronounced fall to the
westward. Sail was now set on the sledges, portions of
the tent being used for that purpose. This day a snow
bunting was seen. The crevasses and fissures again began
to appear, and on the 2oth the summits of the western
Greenland mountains were in sight. The serymik suak or
inland ice thus proved to be a vast extent of smooth
level snow with a margin of broken and fissured ice.
The head of the Ameralik-fjord was at length reached
after 40 days on the inland ice.
The explorers were still sixty miles from the Danish
settlement of Godthaab, and it was decided that while
Nansen and Sverdrup constructed a boat and went down
the fjord the rest should proceed by land. The framework
of the boat consisted of two bamboos and a ski staff.
The difficulty was the ribs, which were made of the
branches of the dwarf willows growing on the banks of
the fjord, and the canvas covering them entailed much
labour in sewing with a sailmaker’s needle as they were
without a ‘“‘palm.’’ The oars were bamboos with forked
willow-branches with canvas stretched across. It was a
fairly good boat, and only required baling every ten
minutes. After a great feast on cranberries the two
explorers started and managed to make their way in her
to Godthaab, The others also arrived safely, and all
were very hospitably received for the winter, returning
to Norway in the following year.
It was a splendid achievement. The central water-
parting was found to be 125 miles from the east, and 226
from the west side, the greatest elevation measured being
8970 ft. Supposing the average land surface under the ice
to rise to 2000 ft., the thickness of the ice-cap would be
nearly 7000 ft. The excavating power of the glaciers is
enormous, and the pressure causing the melting of the
snow and the discharge of an enormous quantity of
water into the sea, counteracts any increase above caused
by the excessive precipitation occurring from the warm
winds blowing from the sea. Nansen found the moisture
to be so great as to be near saturation. Out of 40 days
cH. xxxvil] Greenland and tts Inland Ice Bay
on the inland ice there were 16 days of snow and 4 of rain.
The meteorological results were the most important out-
come of the expedition, because the deductions from them
apply to regions far beyond the limits of Greenland. It was
a fine piece of exploring work, and the name of Nansen will
for all time be coupled with the first crossing of Greenland,
Peary, who, as already mentioned, had made an
attempt at crossing with Maigaard in 1886, succeeded in
raising funds for another expedition in 1891. His design
was to traverse the inland ice from Whale Sound in the
north of Baffin’s Bay, where he would find the tribe of
Arctic Highlanders. Here a steamer landed him, accom-
panied by Mrs Peary, Dr Frederick Cook, aged 26, a
hunter naméd Gibson, a young Norwegian aged 20
named Eivind Astrup, a meteorologist named Vershoef,
and Henson, a coloured man from Virginia, aged 23.
Some short sledge and boat trips were made; the house,
taken out in pieces, was built ; and the winter was passed
in preparations for the journey over the inland ice.
Peary, a man of great energy and indomitable resolu-
tion, claimed to have inaugurated a new departure in
Arctic exploration. He held that only small parties can
do effective work; that fur clothing is better than
woollen, and indeed absolutely essential; that tents and
sleeping bags are unnecessary luxuries; and finally that
all traction should be by dogs, and that by killing a
portion of the dogs for dogs’ food the original load will
last longer. But, at all events as regards the latter, few
humane Englishmen will agree with him. Dogs are in-
valuable for keeping open communications, and for depdét
work; but they ought to be well fed, well treated, and
not overworked. There is a fine passage in Captain Scott’s
Voyage of the Discovery on this subject :—
“To pretend that dogs can be made greatly to increase
the radius of action without pain, suffering, and death, is
futile, and this sordid necessity robs sledge-travelling of
much of its glory. In my mind no journey ever made
with dogs can approach the height of that fine conception
which is realised when a party of men go forth to face
hardships, dangers, and difficulties by their own unaided
efforts, and by days and weeks of hard physical labour
succeed in solving some problem of the great journey.”
M. I. 22
338 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
Peary started with Astrup, Cook, and Gibson in April,
1892. By May 24th the true inland ice had been reached,
and the supporting party with Cook and Gibson returned.
Already the number of dogs had been reduced to 13.
Peary and Astrup continued over the inland ice, reaching
an elevation of 6000 ft. On June 26th they came in
sight of the sea, and from July ist they were travelling
over mountainous crests and ridges until they reached a
summit whence they had a view of a great bay. Musk
oxen were seen and one was secured. By July 7th they
were back on the inland ice, and returned on August 6th.
Only five dogs had survived. Peary claims to have
travelled a distance of 1400 miles in 80 days—about
17 miles a day.
Dr Cook had been getting through some useful
anthropological work in the meantime, making a census
of the Arctic Highlanders, taking measurements of both
sexes at different ages, and recording their habits and
customs.
In 1893 Peary undertook another expedition. Accom-
panied by Mrs Peary, with Captain Bartlett in command
of his steamer Falcon, he made, as before, for Whale
Sound. Fourteen persons were landed and the Falcon
returned. A winter house was built and on September
t2th Mrs Peary gave birth to a daughter. On March 8th,
1894, the start was made for the inland ice journey. On
the 13th eight dogs were killed as food for the others,
Astrup and another man broke down, and had to be sent
back on sledges. The rest went on, but were stopped
by a gale on March 22nd, and when it subsided two dogs
were found dead, and two more men were obliged to
return. In this journey tents and sleeping bags were
taken, in spite of their being previously held to be
“unnecessary luxuries.”’ The party got 128 miles from
Whale Sound, where a large depot was left, at 5500 ft.
above the sea, a smaller one having been deposited earlier.
Here they were forced to return.
Later, Astrup made a reconnaissance of Melville Bay,
and the recesses of Whale Sound were explored.
Another winter was passed at the house, and prepara-
tions were made for a second attempt at the inland ice.
On April 1st, 1895, Peary started with a man named
cH.xxxvu] Greenland and its Inland Ice 339
Lee, the coloured man Henson, four natives, six sledges,
and sixty dogs. The first depdt could not be found,
being buried under the snow, and—a far more serious
blow—they also failed to find the second depét with all
their pemmican, 1400 lb. On entering the fourth week
the party began the eastward slope with only 17 dogs
left out of 42. The survivors had to be fed with dogs
and soon only 11 were left. One cannot help feeling glad
when Peary and his two comrades had to get into the
drag-ropes themselves. At last they left the ice and
pushed on to the land in the hope of finding musk oxen,
and reaching the valley succeeded in shooting two of
these animals and a hare,
When the return journey was begun on June 3rd
Peary had nine dogs and fourteen days’ rations for them,
and thirty days’ half rations of biscuits and oil, and
seventeen of frozen meat for the men. On the roth
there were only six dogs, and on the 22nd one alone
survived. The men had four biscuits left when they
reached the house at Whale Sound.
The results which Peary claimed were the discovery
of Independence Bay, of the northern end of Greenland,
of a channel dividing that great mass of land from large
islands to the north, and of Greenland’s insularity, and
for many years these features have been shown on the
maps. It has now been found that he did not discover the
actual north end of Greenland, and that his channel does
not exist. Peary nevertheless did real good in improving
the condition of the Arctic Highlanders by supplying them
with canvas and improved weapons. With better means
of obtaining sustenance the death rate is said to have
decreased and there are signs of an increase in the
population of this most interesting northern tribe.
Dr Cook’s census gave the number at 233. Peary
discovered near Cape York, and brought home, the three
great meteoric stones from which the Arctic Highlanders
used to obtain the iron for their knives.
22—2
CHAPTER XXXVIII
THE TRANS-POLAR DRIFT.
NANSEN AND THE VOYAGE OF THE FRAM
FRIDTJOF NANSEN, our foremost living Arctic worthy,
a devoted scientific enquirer and a profound student
of Arctic history, had always taken a broad view of
the Arctic problem, mainly with reference to currents
and ocean depths. But the discovery of articles on the
coast of Greenland which had drifted westward from the
wreck of the Jeanette off the Liakhov Islands, first gave
him the idea of his great enterprise?. Nansen conceived
the project of forcing a vessel into the pack on the Siberian
side, and being drifted across the polar ocean. From
most Arctic experts the idea received no encouragement
whatsoever, but I had a full belief, based on careful
study, in the successful issue of such an expedition 2,
Every article of equipment down to the minutest
detail was Nansen’s own conception. Originality has
always been a marked feature of his character. The
matter of first importance then, in his projected enter-
prise, was the building of a special vessel to come out
uninjured after the long Arctic drift. In Mr Colin Archer
of Laurvik Nansen found a constructor, careful and
resourceful as himself, with long experience in boat
and ship-building. The son of a Scotch boat-builder
who had settled in Norway early in the last century,
Colin Archer was brought up to the craft, and he was
the very man to turn Nansen’s ideas into realities. The
result was the Fram. The main points were great
strength, and sides constructed in such a manner that
1 Announced in the Morgenblad by Professor Mohn in 1884.
2 Quite unknown to Nansen I had come to a similar conviction in
contemplating the results of the Nares expedition. In my Report on the
origin, proceedings, and results of this expedition (R. G. S. Proceedings,
1877), 1 pointed out that a current flowed across the polar sea from the
eastern to the western hemisphere, that Franz Josef Land was part of the
Spitsbergen group, rising from the same plateau with a deeper sea to the
north, and that to overstep the boundary of the known polar sea, though
attended by great difficulties, would reward with important discoveries
the future explorer who boldly forced his way north in this direction.
My Report came to Nansen’s knowledge after his return home.
CH.Xxxvill] /Vansen and the “ Fram” 341
the ship would readily rise during ice pressure. She
was also to have large carrying capacity, her beam
being nearly a third of her length1. She was provided
with a triple-expansion engine, and her rig was that
of a three-masted fore-and-aft schooner. But the main
object of Nansen and Colin Archer was that ‘‘she should
slip like an eel out of the embraces of the ice.”
Nansen’s friend, Baron von Toll, went to the New
Siberia Islands in May 1893, and established a depdét
of a month’s provisions at the house he built in 1886
on the coast of Kotelnoi Island. Dogs were to be stationed
at Khabarova in Pett Strait.
The crew of the Fram numbered 13 including the
commander. Sverdrup, the companion of Nansen on the
inland ice of Greenland, was the master; Sigurd Scott
Hansen, a first lieutenant in the navy, went as navigator
and scientific observer; Dr Blessing was surgeon.
In July 1893, the Fram sailed from Norway on this
great and novel enterprise, and on the zgth of that month
the dogs were taken on board at Khabarova. Nansen
crossed the Kara Sea, and proceeded along the coast
of Siberia, discovering several small islands. On
September 8th, Cape Chelyuskin was rounded. On the
16th a northern course was shaped, a little to the west
of the new Siberian Islands, and for some days good
progress was made. It was not until the 25th of
September that the Fram was finally frozen in and the
famous drift began. Scott Hansen took astronomical
observations every second day, and a snow house was
built on the floe for magnetic observations. Deep sea
soundings, with temperatures at various depths, were
periodically taken.
In October 1893 the first great pressure was experi-
enced. The ice was piling up around the Fram, tossing
itself into lofty ridges, and breaking against her sides.
In January 1894 matters looked so serious that prepara-
tions were made to abandon the ship, but she withstood
and rose to any pressure, thus fully confirming the cor-
rectness of Colin Archer’s structural plan.
+ Length of keel ro2 feet, length of deck 128 feet, beam 36 feet, depth
17 feet, thickness of ship’s side 24 to 28inches. In the stern the oak beams
were 4 feet thick.
342 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PaRT1
The drift during the first year, from September 1893
to September 1894, was 189 miles in a northerly direction,
from 78° N. to 82°N. In the second winter Nansen
resolved to leave the ship with one companion, make
an attempt to reach the Pole, and return by Franz
Josef Land and Spitsbergen. Sverdrup was to complete
the voyage. Nansen selected Frederik Hjalmar Johansen,
a native of Skien, then aged 28, as his companion. He
took 28 dogs, intending to feed them on each other.
His sledges—which were too narrow—were the same
pattern as on the Greenland journey, the runners 3} in.
wide and slightly convex, covered with a thin plate
of German silver, and with loose well-tarred guard-
runners of maple underneath the metal onest. Two
kayaks were carried on the sledges, as open lanes of
water were sure to be encountered. His clothing was
woollen, his shoes made of the skin of the hind leg of a
reindeer filled with “‘senegraes” or sedge (Carex avenaria).
Leather Lapp boots were used for warmer weather. The
tent was square at the base, ending in a point with a central
pole, and had a canvas floor. The double sleeping-bags
were of reindeer skin.
Nansen’s cooking apparatus was rather complicated.
Petroleum was found to generate more heat than spirit
in comparison with the weight, 4 gallons lasting I0o
days with two hot meals a day. The lamp, called a
“Primus,” was of German silver with lid and cap of
aluminium, and heated two boilers and a vessel for
melting snow. For food there was a sort of pemmican,
fish flour, dried boiled potatoes, pea soup, butter, choco-
late, and _ biscuit. This was no improvement on
M’Clintock’s scale of diet.
Starting on the r4th March, 1895, the ship being
in 84°N., there was good travelling for the first week.
But on the 2gth ridges of hummocks commenced, and
there was trouble with the sledges, which capsized,
and holes were torn in the kayaks. The travelling got
worse and worse, with ridge after ridge of hummocks,
and occasional lanes of water only covered with thin
ice. After 26 days Nansen, who had reached a latitude
1 The British sledges 1850-9 were 3 feet wide, the runners of metal,
3 inches wide, and slightly convex.
cH.xxxvill] Vansen and the “ Fram” 343
of 86° 28’ N., had to turn south and make for the land.
It was very hard work, the dogs were much reduced
both in numbers and in strength, and in May the
travellers came to soft snow up to the knees. In June
there was water on the floes, the lanes were opening,
and the five surviving dogs were nearly starving. On
the 5th June they halted for the very necessary business
of repairing the kayaks. The open water stopped all
progress with sledges and they were now obliged to
launch the kayaks with the sledges on them. Two
dogs only were left.
Land was at length sighted on the 24th July, the
Hoidtenland group, as Nansen named it, consisting of
Eva, Liv, and Adelaide Isles, all covered with glaciers.
These little islets are specially interesting, because
Ross’s roseate gull (Rhodostethia rosea) was here found
to be numerous, and the group appeared to be their
breeding place.
Proceeding on their perilous voyage, Nansen and
Johansen found that they could make safer and quicker
progress by securing the kayaks together. On August 28th
they reached an island in the Franz Josef group, where
they resolved to winter. They built a hut, and having
managed to shoot some walrus, they made lamps in which
to burn the oil. But they were in a very precarious posi-
tion, and suffered great hardships, remaining in these
wretched winter quarters from August 1895 to May 1896.
On May 17th, 1896, the voyage was continued with
kayaks lashed and a sail set. They were stopped twice
by gales of wind. Then there was very nearly a fatal
disaster. The two men were busy on shore, when Johansen
suddenly cried out that the kayaks were adrift. It was
too true, and their loss would be certain death. They
were lashed together and drifting along. Nansen plunged
into the ice-cold water with his clothes on. He swam
to them but was nearly exhausted before he could get
a hold. At last he tumbled on to them, stiff and half-
frozen, and in paddling them back to the shore he coolly
took his gun and shot two little auks. He was, however,
more dead than alive and it was long before Johansen,
using all possible means, could recover him. In the
end of June they again patched the kayaks, and were
344 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
starting on the perilous voyage to Spitsbergen, when they
had the extraordinary good fortune to be found by
Jackson. They received most cordial hospitality, and
embarked in Jackson’s relief ship for Norway, which
they reached safely in August 1896,
Meanwhile the drift of the Fram had been ably
continued by Captain Sverdrup, with deep-sea soundings
and temperatures. On the 17th August 1895 the vessel
sustained another severe nip, but rose to it easily. One
more winter, that of 1895-96, was passed, and on May 7th
1896 Sverdrup found that the Fram was in 83° 45'N.,
and 12°50’ E., with Spitsbergen to the south. He
determined to force his way into open water, and in
28 days he had worked the ship through 180 miles of
closely-packed ice, reaching the navigable sea to the north
of Spitsbergen and sighting land after ro41 days.
The Fram arrived off Danes Island, where my friend
Arnold Pike, who has all the makings, with opportunities,
of a first-rate Arctic explorer, had built a house, wintering
there in 1888-89. In 1897 he cruised east of Spitsbergen
and landed on the Wiche Islands. His house in Danes
Gat was used by the ill-fated Andrée when he was preparing
to start in his balloon, and Sverdrup and his companions
found the latter there with the steamer Virgo. But the
season was not favourable, and Andrée returned to
Sweden. In 1897 he was again at Pike’s house, and on
July 11th ascended with two companions in the balloon
Eagle. They were never more heard of.
The Fram arrived in Norway a few days after Nansen,
and the whole party were once more united, and were
welcomed with unbounded enthusiasm by their country-
men at Christiania.
The drift of the Fram, with its continuous scientific
observations, worked out exactly as Nansen hoped and
expected. The results threw new light on the whole
Arctic problem. Nansen lifted the veil, and his expedition
was the most important in modern times. It was dis-
covered that there was a deep ocean to the north of
Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land, extending beyond
the Pole, and the whole of the vast annual harvest of
ice which drifts south between Spitsbergen and Green-
land comes from the north of the Fram’s track. Nansen
CH. Xxxvill] Vansen and the “ Fram” 345
fixed the position of the Siberian continental shelf and
found that beyond it there was an ocean with a depth
of 2000 fathoms, which is covered with a continual
breaking and shifting expanse of drift ice. The most
striking result of the deep-sea soundings was that while
the surface water was very cold, there was warmer
water in the depths.
The results of the expedition were published in six
folio volumes, containing reports on the biology by
Professors Collett and Sars, the geology of Franz Josef
Land, and the bathymetrical, astronomical, meteoro-
logical, and magnetic observations. The most valuable
and interesting papers are those by Nansen himself on
the bathymetrical features of the polar seas, and on
the continental shelves.
At the great meeting in February 1897 in the Albert
Hall Nansen received a memorable welcome from his
English friends. The late King Edward, then Prince
of Wales, who was present, suggested to me that, though
the popular reception had been a great success, he thought
that there should also be a meeting to discuss the scientific
results of Nansen’s expedition. Acting on this advice
I called such a meeting and the result was the best
discussion I have ever heard at any meeting of the Geo-
graphical Society. It appeared to me, as I stated at the
time, that the light thrown upon the Arctic problem by
Nansen not only extended our knowledge positively, but
had the effect of piecing together what appeared before to
be fragmentary, and of making detached pieces fit into
their proper places and form a consistent whole.
Nansen continued the work in which he took the
deepest interest—the bathymetrical features of the
Norwegian Sea, his chief aim being the greatest attainable
accuracy in the construction of instruments and the
working out of results!. In 1914 he accompanied a
Russian expedition through the Kara Sea to the Yenisei,
and went by land across Siberia as far as Vladivostok.
The result was a most interesting narrative, but it is the
1 See Nansen’s “‘Oceanography of the North Polar Basin” in Vol. 111
of the results of the expedition, the “ Bathymetrical Features ’’ in Vol. 1v,
also The Sea West of Spitsbergen (Christiania, 1912) and,the oceanographic
observations of the Isachsen Spitsbergen expedition, by Bjgrn Helland
Hansen and Fridtjof Nansen,
346 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
appendix which will prove most valuable to polar students
and navigators. He here gives a list of all the Kara Sea
expeditions from Stephen Burrough in 1556 to the date
at which he wrote, with the results of their voyages; and
then, with the information derived both from books and
from his own experience, he explains the causes of the
prevalence of obstructive ice and of its absence. His
conclusion is that steamers should very rarely fail to get
through the ice of the Kara Sea}.
The great literary achievement of Fridtjof Nansen
was the publication of the valuable work entitled In
Northern Mists—Arctic Exploration in Early Times (1911).
It is a monumental work, entailing an incredible amount
of careful research, and the materials are put together
and presented with the skill and judgment of a master
hand. In his deeply interesting introduction, Nansen
answers the question ‘‘ What were they seeking in the ice
and cold,” by a quotation from the old Norse chronicle,
the King’s Mirror :—
If you wish to know what men seek in this land, or why men journey
thither in so great danger of their lives, then it is the threefold nature
of man that draws him thither. One part of him is emulation and
desire of fame, for it is a man’s nature to go where there is likelihood
of great danger, and to make himself famous thereby. Another part
is the desire of knowledge, for it is man’s nature to wish to know
and see those parts of which he has heard, and to find out whether
they are as it was told him or not. The third part is the desire of gain,
seeing that men seek after riches in every place where they learn
that profit is to be had, even though there is great danger in it.
Nansen himself puts it more tersely yet scarcely less
impressively. ‘‘From first to last the history of polar
exploration is a single mighty manifestation of the
power of the unknown over the mind of man.”
' Through Siberia (Heinemann, 1914). Appendix on the navigation of
the Kara Sea.
CHAPTER XXXIX
THE PARRY ARCHIPELAGO—SVERDRUP
THE very important voyage of Captain Sverdrup may
be looked upon as a sequel to the voyage of Nansen.
The same generous patrons of Arctic enterprise, Axel
Heiberg and the brothers Ringnes, resolved to equip
another Arctic expedition and, by the advice of Nansen,
the command was offered to Sverdrup, the selection of
the route being left to the commander.
Sverdrup accepted; the Fram was lent by the Govern-
ment, and a crew of sixteen selected. Victor Braumann,
a first lieutenant in the Royal Norwegian Navy, aged
28, was Sverdrup’s second. The cartographer was a
lieutenant of cavalry named Gunnerius Ingvald Isachsen,
and the mate Olaf Roanes of the Lofoten Islands. A
Swede named Simmons went as botanist, Edward Buy
as biologist, and Schei as geologist.
The Fram sailed from Laurvik (where Colin Archer
had made some repairs) on the 25th June 1898, obtained
dogs at Lievely, and proceeded to Smith Channel, where
she was stopped by impenetrable ice just north of Cape
Sabine. On August 18th she anchored in Rice Strait,
which became her winter quarters. A visit was received
from an Arctic Highlander named Kolotangva. Excellent
exploring work was done during the spring of 1899.
Sverdrup himself crossed an isthmus rich in musk oxen
and other game, and discovered the western shore of
Ellesmere Island. Isachsen was on the inland ice, and
Schei did some excellent geological work.
In the summer Sverdrup found the ice in Sir
Thomas Smith’s Channel closely packed, and therefore
resolved to attempt discoveries up the channel named
by Baffin after Sir Francis Jones, taking with him an
abundant supply of walrus meat. Jones Sound had
previously been visited by whalers, and in August 1851
Captain Austin had entered it with the Pioneer and
Inivepid and proceeded up it until he was stopped by
348 8 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParRTI
ice extending from shore to shore. Captain Inglefield
had the same experience in 1852. Sverdrup was more
fortunate, and on September 3rd found winter quarters
on the northern shore, at a place which was named
Havnfjord.
The autumn travelling during October was devoted
to laying out depdts. Sverdrup had two-man tents,
double-lined, 6 ft. by 5 ft. and 5 ft. high in the middle,
the lower part of the sides being vertical for a foot.
There was just room for two men and the cooking
apparatus. They had a capital smith and metal-worker
on board, named Olsen, who made odometers for the
sledges. The diet for travelling was unusually varied.
Besides pemmican, biscuit, cocoa, and sugar, which are
necessaries, there were coffee, butter, pea-soup, vegetables,
dried fruit, egg powder, groats, potatoes, meat fat,
golden syrup, and fish flour.
The main depot was at a place which was named
Bjornberg. The spring travelling parties, with 55 dogs
in splendid condition, started in March, limited parties
accompanying them to Bjérnberg and beyond. There
were three extended parties, Sverdrup and Fosheim;
Isachsen and Hassel; and the geologist Schei and
Hendricksen, who had been in the Fram with Nansen.
Very interesting discoveries were made. The west coast
of Ellesmere Island was found to be indented with deep
winding fjords, afterwards explored by the scientific
staff. The great island named after Consul Axel Heiberg
was discovered, and as islands were seen to the westward,
the two extended parties separated, Sverdrup going
north and Isachsen west. Axel Heiberg Island consists
of high precipitous cliffs, and there were pressed-up
hummocks off the coast of extraordinary height. The
two islands discovered by Isachsen and named after
the brothers Ringnes were of low altitude. The extended
parties made very fine journeys, resulting in important
discoveries. Sverdrup was 76 days away, Isachsen
g2 days, and the scientific party 78 days.
When the Fram got out of her winter quarters
Sverdrup proceeded westward up Jones Sound. Its
western end is blocked by land with two narrow channels
leading to the Polar Sea. Some of the names are those
cH. xXxxIx] The Parry Archifelago—Sverdrup 349
of Sir Edward Belcher, who made a journey in 1853 along
the north coast of Grinnell Peninsula, from the winter
quarters of the Assistance in Northumberland Inlet.
The coast of North Devon turns north, forming the Colin
Archer Peninsula, followed by North Kent Island with
Cardigan Strait on the North Devon side, and what
Sverdrup called Hell Gate on the Ellesmere Island side.
Both these straits lead north and south.
The Fram entered Cardigan Strait and reached the
north end against a strong current. She was ultimately
drifted out of the strait, and excellent winter quarters
were found near Hell Gate on the north side of Jones
Sound, a long narrow inlet free of ice which was named
Gaasefjord. Around it there were grassy stretches
with small tarns and a lake three miles long, and the
country abounded in game. The third winter passed
with all in good health. As many as 20 walrus and 18
musk oxen had been obtained.
The travellers started on the 1st April to continue
their very important discoveries. This time Sverdrup
had Schei the geologist with him as a companion, while
Isachsen again took Hassel. Sverdrup discovered the
whole west coast of Ellesmere Island to within a short
distance of Aldrich’s furthest on the north coast, naming
the north-west point Lands Lowk. He also discovered
the whole east coast of Axel Heiberg Island, and the
northern point facing the Polar Sea was named Svarte-
veg. The channel between these two points was named
after Fridtjof Nansen. Isachsen explored Ellef Ringnes
and Asmund Ringnes Islands, as well as the west coast
of Axel Heiberg Island.
The travelling parties returned in June, but the ice
blocked up the Gaasefjord and the Fram was far up.
A few months hard work blasting and cutting enabled
them to get the ship several miles nearer the water,
but six miles still remained when they realised that their
work was in vain. The boats were accordingly sent away
for walrus meat, and a fourth winter had to be faced.
When the spring once more returned, Captain Sverdrup
decided upon sending a party down Wellington Channel
to examine the state of the depots at Beechey Island.
They found the house in ruins, old Sir John Ross’s
350 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
boat ‘wantonly injured, and the depét robbed. Isachsen
and Buy meanwhile explored the south coast of Jones
Sound, and all the parties had returned to the ship
by July.
This year the ice cleared out of the fjord and the
Fram was soon beyond Gaasefjord on her return home,
after four winters. The explorers arrived in Christiania
in September 1902. Captain Sverdrup had very ably
conducted a most successful expedition, Lieut. Isachsen
had specially distinguished himself as a sledge traveller.
Meteorological, magnetic, and tidal observations were
regularly taken throughout the long period, and the
biological and geological collections were of quite excep-
tional interest.
The discoveries of Sverdrup and Isachsen complete
the delineation of the great Parry Archipelago, for Axel
Heiberg and the Ringnes Islands must be included in
it, especially from a geological point of view. Ellesmere
Island, North Devon, and Baffin Island stand apart as
more allied to Greenland in character. The Parry
Archipelago presents quite a different aspect, both
geologically and physiographically, and is fairly uniform
in structure, with similar strata representing different
geological periods, when wanting in one place supple-
mented in another. Thus the indications of the lias
formations discovered by M’Clintock on Prince Patrick
Island, and by Sherard Osborn on the north point of
Bathurst Island, were repeated in the discoveries of
Sverdrup’s expedition. On the other hand in Baumann
Sound, on the west coast of Ellesmere Island, there was
a coal field and impressions of tertiary plants such as
are found on Disco Island and the Noursoak Peninsula
in Greenland.
On the whole it may be said that the Sverdrup
expedition made the largest addition to our Arctic
knowledge of any other since the return of the Franklin
search expeditions.
Captain Gunnar Isachsen continued his affection for
Arctic work, and took special interest in bathymetrical
researches. He made further valuable oceanographical
investigations during his Spitsbergen expedition in Igro.
CHAPTER XL
ATTEMPTS TO REACH THE NORTH POLE.
CAGNI—COOK—PEARY
Tue present writer, throughout the sixty years and
more of his connection with polar research, has always
deprecated the diverting of exploring energy to dashes
for the Pole, if this be the sole object.
In former days the enterprise of reaching the Pole
was looked upon as including important discoveries,
and the opening of a route to the east. It was for these
objects that John Davis made his attempt; that the
Government in the eighteenth century offered a reward
for reaching 89° N.; that Phipps, Buchan, and Scoresby
tried how far north it was possible to go in a ship, and
Parry with boats and sledges. Sir George Nares was
ordered to attempt an approach to the Pole in the
erroneous belief, inspired by Hall’s map, that the land
trended north, in which case such a journey would
have useful results. But since Nansen’s discovery that
the Pole is in an ice-covered sea there was no longer
any special object to be attained in going there, except
for magnetic observations.
Nansen made an interesting journey northwards
which showed the character of the ice to be crossed.
As the floes are in motion during a great part of the year,
and there is danger from the lanes of water that form
and much obstruction from the lines of hummocks
thrown up by ice pressure, progress is difficult and
uncertain. Nansen wisely took kayaks with him, capable
of carrying the sledges across lanes of water.
The Duke of the Abruzzi was bitten with the idea
of reaching the Pole by way of Franz Josef Land, following
Nansen’s route and adopting his plans for sledge, tent,
and other travelling equipage. He bought a Norwegian
sealer and was fortunate in reaching the northern part
of Franz Josef Land (near Cape Fligely) for winter
——
352 Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
quarters, But a severe frost-bite, necessitating the
amputation of a finger, prevented him from leading
the main journey. His place was ably filled by his second
in command, Captain Cagni of the Italian Navy.
Captain Cagni arranged his scheme for travelling
with great care. His sledges and tents were on Nansen’s
pattern, but he altered the reindeer-skin sleeping bags
so as to have room for three persons. Three limited
parties of four sledges each were to enable the fourth
extended party to start full after the 45th day. The
sledges constantly required repairs, and were in worse
condition every day. Captain Cagni encountered the
same difficulties as Nansen from lines of pressed-up
hummocks and lanes of water. He succeeded in getting
a few miles beyond Nansen’s furthest to 86° 33’ N.
Detentions by gales of wind and other misfortunes
threw out the original scheme, but the most important
lesson taught by Cagni’s journey is the danger of steering
in a wrong direction, and the absolute necessity for
frequent observations to obtain true bearings. As he
approached the land again he found that he was fifty
miles out in longitude. This shows the necessity for
taking amplitude observations of the sun whenever it
is possible. In going towards the Pole it is still more
essential, for to attempt to reach a point like the Pole
without a true course constantly verified must inevitably
lead to error. Cagni and his party suffered great hard-
ships before they succeeded in reaching the ship again.
Peary commenced the first of his three attempts to
reach the North Pole in 1896, when he reported having
been to 85°N., travelling from the north coast of Elles-
mere Island. His plan was to hire the sledges and dogs
of the Arctic Highlanders and to get the natives to drive,
so that the white man merely has to walk alongside.
The Danes have always travelled in this way; indeed it
is a necessity when the white man has no companion or
only one or two, and nothing could be better for journeys
along the Greenland coast or over the inland ice. Peary,
who holds that the fewer white men in an expedition the
greater its chance of success, also thinks that the Eskimo
dress of furs is the best, but there is much difference of
opinion on this point.
cH. XL] tfempts to reach the North Pole 353
The Arctic Highlanders, whose sledges and dogs and
skill as drivers enabled Peary to make his journeys,
deserve the greatest credit. All explorers speak warmly
of their generosity, their hospitality and trustworthiness,
as well as of their prowess in hunting. Such praise is
well deserved!. Kane, who has given the best account
of the Arctic Highlanders, was indebted to them for
much kind assistance, and Allen Young bore similar
testimony.
Peary, who was a man of exceptional perseverance
and indomitable energy, was well backed financially,
and was able to proceed to his third attempt on the Pole
in a well-found steamer. The most northern accessible
coast—the north coast of Ellesmere Island—is of course
the best point of departure. Great ranges of pressed-up
hummocks and open lanes of water were to be expected,
with the danger of being drifted with the pack. Both
Nansen and Cagni provided themselves with kayaks, and
M’Clintock was always prepared for the necessity of
having to cross water. Peary, however, appears to have
made no such provision. He reported having reached
87° N. in 1906, but he was in great danger from inability
to cross the open lanes of water, and from miscalcula-
tions. He returned with the intention of making another
attempt.
He was preceded by a similar attempt, made with
much smaller means, by his former colleague Dr Cook.
In July 1907 a schooner yacht belonging to a Mr Bradley
arrived at Etah, near the entrance to Smith Sound.
Stores were landed at Anoatok, 25 miles from Etah,
and Mr Bradley departed, leaving Dr Cook and Mr
Rudolf Francke at Anoatok, where they built a house
of packing-cases with a roof of shingles. Dr Cook had
been ethnologist in Peary’s first expedition and had
acquired the Eskimo language as spoken by the Arctic
Highlanders. He had also served in the Belgian Antarctic
expedition.
Anoatok, which lies in lat. 78° 20’ N., is the most
northern settlement of the Arctic Highlanders, and here
1 The writer was shipmate with one of them for more than a year,
and there could not be a better disposed lad or a more reliable comrade
when travelling.
M. I. 23
354 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParrTi
250 Eskimos were established with their dogs. During
the winter Cook was busy making sledges. These were
of hickory, 12 ft. in length and only 24 ft. wide, the width
of runner 14in. The dress adopted was much the same
as that of the Eskimos. The principal food was to be
pemmican made by Armour of Chicago. A Io ft.
collapsible canvas boat with wooden frame was considered
essential. The party which started from Anoatok on
February roth, 1908, consisted of Cook, Francke, nine
Arctic Highlanders, and 103 dogs in prime condition,
with 11 sledges carrying 4000 lbs. of supplies.
The party crossed Smith Sound to Cape Sabine, and
then took the route discovered by Sverdrup across
Ellesmere Island and proceeded up the west coast of
that island. Abundance of game was met with, and
Svarteveg, the most northern point of Axel Heiberg
Island, was reached. This was to be Cook’s point of
departure for the Pole. He took leave of his Arctic
Highlanders, only retaining two lads of about 20, named
Etukishuk and Ahwilak, as his companions, and proceeded
with two sledges, 26 dogs, and the collapsible boat.
Francke had already returned. The provisions were
almost untouched, as the party had been able to live
on the game its members had shot during the journey
of 400 miles from Anoatok. An important depot was
left at Svarteveg.
The final start was made on March r8th, 1908, the
travelling being difficult owing to the lines of hummocks
caused by ice pressure and the lanes of water. On
March 30th Cook sighted land to the westward in
84° 50’ N. which he named Bradley Land, but he did
not alter his course to examine it. On April 21st he
reports having taken a sun’s meridian altitude which
gave a latitude of 89° 57’, but he must have been mistaken,
both overrating his distances and failing to make sure
of his direction by observations. He doubtless did
make a long journey over the ice, in a more or less
northerly direction; but without observations to obtain
true bearings, no reliance can be placed upon his positions,
Cook’s instruments were a sextant and a glass artificial
horizon adjusted by screws and spirit levels. He also
relied on shadow observations, and on an odometer
CH.XL] ttempts to reach the North Pole 355
fitted to his sledge. But there is no mention of any
observations for true bearing of the sun and that he
made none is conclusively proved by the fact that in
returning he was unable to follow his outward tracks
and his route was consequently far to the west of
Svarteveg, until at length he found himself in Hassel
Strait between the two Ringnes Islands, unable to reach
his depot.
Cook was in great difficulties, but eventually he found
his way to Jones Sound, thanks to the collapsible boat
and to the efficiency and resourcefulness of the two
Eskimo lads. The party wintered at Cape Sparbo in
Jones Sound on the north-west coast of North Devon.
Cartridges had run out and they had no native weapons,
It was due to the wonderful skill and energy of the
two young Arctic Highlanders that weapons were con-
trived out of unpromising materials, and sufficient game
obtained to enable them to live through the winter.
In the spring they had to make the long journey from
Jones Sound to Anoatok, a great part of the route being
over new ground. Eventually Cook returned by a Danish
ship, having gone from Smith Sound across Melville
Bay to Upernivik. He left his instruments and some
notes behind to be taken back in the next ship, con-
sidering that there was danger of losing them if he had
taken them with him on his long journey.
Peary, with strong financial support, fitted out a
well-found steamer, the Roosevelt, in the following year,
with Captain Bartlett, a native of Newfoundland, as
Master. With him went his secretary, Ross Marvin,
Dr Goodsell as surgeon, two volunteers named Macmillan
and Borup, and his negro servant Henson. There were
22 men all told when the steamer started in July 1908,
and at Etah 22 Eskimo men, 17 women, and 246 dogs
were taken on board. On August 18th the voyage was
resumed, and on September 4th the neighbourhood of
the Alert’s winter quarters was reached, and autumn
parties were sent forward to Cape Colombia to form a
depot, this being Peary’s starting-point for the Pole.
In order that the expedition might be of some use,
the American Coast and Geodetic Survey officials arranged
that there should be tidal observations, and that soundings
23—2
356 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
to fix the position of the continental shelf should be
taken. Tidal observations had already been taken and
discussed by the Alert and the Discovery. The Roosevelt
observations also included 29 days at Cape Aldrich.
The continental shelf with a depth of 100 fathoms extends
for about 46 miles from the land. In latitude 85° 23’ N.
the sounding was only 310 fathoms.
The distance from Cape Colombia to the Pole and
back is 826 miles, a distance which had been greatly
exceeded in the sledge journeys of the British officers
of the Franklin search expeditions. M’Clintock made
a journey of 1210 miles in 99 days without the help of
dogs, and Lieut. Mecham travelled over 1336 miles,
the average rate outwards being 184 miles, and on the
return journey 234 miles per diem; a feat that has never
been beaten by dog-sledging. The peculiar difficulty of
Peary’s undertaking was caused by the drift and by the
open lanes of water. Against the latter formidable obstacle
he again appears to have taken no precautions.
In February 1909 the sledging parties proceeded to
Cape Colombia, Bartlett starting on the 15th, and Peary
with two Arctic Highlanders, two sledges, and 16 dogs on
the 22nd. On the last day of February Bartlett started
for the north, as a pioneer party to cut leads through
the ridges of hummocks, and thus make the route easier
for the sledges that were to follow. On March 1st Peary
started with his own sledges and the limited sledges—
24 men, Ig sledges, and 133 dogs. Iglus were used instead
of tents, which was a mistake, and the scale of diet
was practically much the same as M’Clintock’s, the great
master of Arctic sledge travelling.
On the 5th March they came to a lane of open
water, which detained them for several days owing
to lack of means for crossing it. ‘‘During five days
Peary paced up and down deploring his luck,” After-
wards they crossed seven lanes of water on young ice.
Bartlett was the last to return, after taking an observation
with the resulting latitude of 87° 46’ 49” N. Thus 280
miles had been traversed in a month and they were 133
miles from the Pole. The speed had been calculated at
under 15 miles a day.
From this spot Peary went on for the Pole with only
cu. xt] 4ttempts to reach the North Pole 357
his negro servant and four Eskimos, five sledges and
40 dogs. It was a great mistake to enter upon what
he considered the most important part of his journey
without any white companion, more especially as bearings
and distances do not appear to have been ascertained by
observations. For help in making these rough estimates,
and for such observations as were taken, a colleague was
imperatively necessary.
Directly Peary parted from Bartlett his estimated
distances were more than doubled, and the course was
assumed to be due north. Peary refers to the meridian
of Cape Colombia as if he had never deviated from that
meridian during the whole journey. Yet there is no record
of the latitude and longitude of Cape Colombia having
been fixed!, and no mention of any observations for
amplitude during the whole journey. Without such
observations it would not be possible to keep on the
same meridian. Yet, after journeys during four days
estimated at from 25 to 30 miles a day, a meridian altitude
of the sun was taken which gave a latitude of 89° 25’ N.
or 97 miles due north from the position where Bartlett
observed. Without amplitude observations this would
not be possible, so that there must be mistakes in the
observations for this and subsequent meridian altitudes.
The sun was very near the horizon at noon at that time
of the year. The distances were, perhaps naturally,
over-estimated. Peary was very fortunate in being able
to follow his tracks during his return journey, in spite
of a furious gale which might have obliterated them.
It is to be hoped, in the interests of geographical
discovery and of science, that there will now be an end
of the North Pole except as a necessary point on maps
of the world, and that the energies of explorers will
hereafter be turned to more useful work. A complete
series of magnetic observations at the goth degree of
north latitude would, however, be important in the
_ opinion of those who believe that terrestrial magnetism
is connected with the earth’s axis.
1 He may have adopted the position fixed by the observations of
Lieut. Aldrich, The sun was below the horizon when Peary started.
CHAPTER XLI
KOOLEMANS BEYNEN AND THE VOYAGES OF THE WILLEM
BARENTSZ. SIR MARTIN CONWAY AND SPITSBERGEN.
CAPTAIN BERNIER AND CANADIAN ARCTIC LANDS
THE voyages of Sir Allen Young in the Pandora
had as one result the training of the character of an
enthusiastic young Arctic navigator whose brief career
was so brilliant and impressive that no Arctic history
would be complete without some account of it.
Laurens Rijnhart Koolemans Beynen was born at
the Hague on the r1th March 1852, and became a mid-
shipman in the Royal Dutch Navy in 1871. He saw
service in the North Sea, on the coast of Guinea, and in
Sumatra, returning home and obtaining his Lieutenant’s
commission in 1874. Beynen had read much of the
former glories of the Dutch navy, and had thought
over the possibility of restoring them. He felt that,
owing to exclusive steamer service in well-known seas,
and to enervating work in the Indian Archipelago,
Dutch seamen had lost much of their skill and spirit.
He therefore desired to see new fields of enterprise
occupied by his seafaring countrymen, to serve as a
counterpoise to the less instructive service in the Dutch
Indies. Above all, he considered voyages of discovery
in the Arctic seas to be the most fitted to call forth a
new spirit among Dutch seamen. Full of these ideas
young Beynen called upon Commodore Jansen, with
whom he was not previously acquainted, as the officer
who was most likely to sympathise with them!. It so
1 Commodore Jansen was one of the most active and accomplished
of the honorary corresponding members of our Royal Geographical Society
of his time and the chief promoter of the revival of Arctic voyages
in Holland. He saw much service in the Royal Dutch Navy, joining
its surveying branch, and was for several years engaged on a survey in
the Riouw Archipelago, the Straits of Sunda, and elsewhere. As a Lieu-
tenant on board the frigate Prins van Oranje he served in the West Indies,
and during a visit to Washington in 1851 formed a life-long friendship
for Maury, the great American hydrographer. He contributed the chapter
on land and sea breezes to Maury’s Physical Geography of the Sea and
CH. XLI] Beynen 359
happened that Jansen had just received a letter from
Captain Allen Young, and another from myself, asking
whether a young Dutch naval officer could not be
appointed to serve in the Pandora. Jansen warmly
sympathised with the aspirations of the young officer,
and he received permission to join the vessel.
Beynen could not fail to learn much under such a
splendid seaman as Allen Young, and he became
acquainted with ice navigation in its many phases
during the season of 1875, returning with much knowledge
and increased enthusiasm. In the winter of 1876, atmy
request, he undertook to edit a second edition of the
voyages of Barentsz for the Hakluyt Society. The work
entailed much research, and he accomplished it with
diligence and considerable literary ability. It is a standard
work which is frequently referred to. Beynen then
served under Allen Young in the second voyage of the
Pandora and proved himself to be very useful in peculiarly
trying circumstances 1.
Beynen was for a short time in the training ship
for boys, cruising in the North Sea, and he then devoted
himself heart and soul to the Arctic propaganda, delivering
lectures all over the country. His bright enthusiasm was
infectious, and an influential Arctic Committee was
formed®. Sufficient funds were collected to enable the com-
mittee to build a small schooner at Amsterdam, specially
strengthened for ice navigation. She was launched
on April 6th, 1878, and named the Willem Barentsz.
Lieut. A. de Bruyne received the command and Koolemans
Beynen went as his second, with Lieut. Speilman for the
magnetic observations, and an adventurous young
Englishman W. J. A. Grant—an Oxford undergraduate,
in 1864 published an important work The Latest Discoveries in Maritime
Affairs. In the following year he became a Commodore in the Royal
Dutch Navy, and was appointed to superintend the building of the ironclad
Prins Hendrik, which he afterwards commanded. In 1868 he retired from
active service, after a distinguished naval career of 35 years. At my
request Jansen examined the Dutch archives with a view to a study of
ice navigation in the Spitsbergen and Barentsz seas, and the results of his
researches were published in the R. G. S. Proceedings (Old Series, 1x. 9, 163).
In 1873 he was appointed a Councillor of State, and attained the rank of
Rear Admiral. He died in September 1894, aged 77.
1 Beynen published De Reis van de Pandora in den Zomer van 1876,
2 The Committee consisted of the Baron van Wassenaer van Catwyck,
Councillor of State Commodore Jansen, Franzen van de Putte, Professor
Buys Ballot, Professor Veth, Jonkheer J. K. J. de Jonge (Tveasurer)
360 3 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
who had also served with Leigh Smith—as photographer.
Commodore Jansen drew up the instructions. He con-
sidered that the Barentsz Sea would make an excellent
training ground for Dutch seamen, but that the first
voyage should be confined within the limits of what is
easily attainable. He thought that, by yearly increasing
knowledge and experience, his countrymen might in
time be in a position to undertake more hazardous and
difficult voyages.
The Willem Barentsz went direct to Amsterdam Island,
near the north-west point of Spitsbergen, and the Dutch
explorers visited the site of Smeerenburg, repairing some
of the tombstones. They then dredged and sounded
ovet the Barentsz Sea. In Beynen’s words they made
“a scientific examination of the sea that bears the name
of the greatest of our mariners.’’ Beynen in his letters,
describes with a graphic pen the incidents of the voyage,
and the various encounters with the ice.
On the little schooner’s return the young officer who
had been the mainstay of the expedition was ordered
to the East Indies and died of fever at Macassar. His
loss was deeply felt by many friends, for there was a
charm about the young enthusiast which endeared him
to all. But none mourned for the youth so full of promise,
cut off before he reached his prime, more deeply than
Admiral Jansen, who looked upon him almost as a son.
In 1879 Sir Henry Gore-Booth and Captain A. H.
Markham, R.N., chartered the little Norwegian cutter
Isbjéyn, and made an extensive exploration of the shores
of Novaya Zemlya, and the Kara Sea, with the object of
reporting on the state of the ice and other important
matters of a similar nature in those waters. They were
in company with the Willem Barentsz for some days in
the Matyushin Strait.
The Arctic voyages of the Willem Barentsz were
continued for six more years. In 1879 Lieut. A. de
Bruyne again commanded, with Lieut. H. van
Brockhuyzen as his second. In this voyage Franz
Josef Land was sighted and large and valuable collections
were made. The voyages of 1880 and 1881 were com-
manded by van Brockhuyzen, but in 1880 the Wallem
Barentsz was driven on shore and the work of the season
CH. XLI] Sir Martin Conway 361
lost. She was re-floated and thoroughly repaired, and
Lieut. Hoffmann conducted the voyage of 1882. The
two last voyages in 1883 and 1884 were commanded
by Lieut. Dalen. The impetus that Koolemans Beynen
had given to Dutch Arctic enterprise must have been
great, seeing that these voyages were continued for six
years after his death'. Useful scientific work was done
during all the voyages, and it is much to be regretted
that the good work was not continued and its scope
extended by the people of the Netherlands.
Although the scientific exploration of a country such
as Spitsbergen after its discovery and the delineation of
its coasts, mountain ranges, and islands, hardly comes
within the scope of the present work, mention of some
important work in this group cannot be omitted. In 1898
the Swedish and Russian expeditions began the measure-
ment of an arc of meridian in Spitsbergen, which was
completed in 1890. In 1890 also, Dr Nathorst made
an important circumnavigation of the Spitsbergen group,
thoroughly exploring Giles Land, and the Wiche Islands.
There have been numerous visits of yachts, as well as
vessels coming with scientific objects; even a company
has been formed to work the veins of coal discovered.
But the most important recent Spitsbergen work has
been the expedition in 1896 to cross the main island
for the first time. Up to that time the interior of Spits-
bergen was practically unknown.
Sir Martin Conway undertook this achievement with
four companions—Mr Garwood, a mountaineer and
geologist; Dr Gregory, the author of The Great Rift
Valley of Africa; Mr Trevor Battye, who had previously
made a very thorough survey of Kolguev Island in 1894,
as geologist; and Sir Martin’s cousin, Mr H. E. Conway,
as the artist. The expedition was quite successful and
a valuable and very interesting narrative describing
the interior of Spitsbergen was the result. The route
was from Advent Bay to Agadh Bay on the east coast.
The party also visited the north coast and Walden
1! Lady Markham’s translation of the Life of L. R. Koolemans Beynen
by Charles Boissevain was published by Sampson Low in 1885.
2 Author of Ice-bound on Kolguev.
iF
362 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Island, and passed down Hinlopen Strait. In the follow-
ing year Sir Martin Conway and Mr Garwood explored
the interior between Klaas Bille and Wijde Bays, and
made an ascent of the Horn-sands-tind. This is not
all, however, that Arctic students owe to Sir Martin
Conway. Besides his First Crossing of Spitsbergen he
has published a History of Spitsbergen from its discovery
to the beginning of the scientific exploration of the
country, with a complete discussion of the nomen-
clature—a most useful feature, as the English and
Dutch were discovering and naming at the same time,
and overlapping each other!. Sir Martin has also edited
some early Spitsbergen voyages for the Hakluyt Society.
One of the most recent Arctic events is the transfer
to the Dominion Government of all the islands north
of America previously forming part of the territories of
the British Crown. These islands consist of Baffin
Island, North Devon, Ellesmere Island, and the whole
of the Parry Archipelago.
The Dominion Government resolved to fit out and
send a steamer to take formal possession. The Gauss
was bought, which had been specially built at Kiel
for Antarctic service in Ig00, a vessel of 436 tons net,
with a length of 165 anda width of 37 ft. The command
was given to Captain Bernier, who in 1902 had en-
deavoured to obtain funds for a vessel to drift across the
Pole, taking deep sea soundings,—an able and efficient
commander who had made a preliminary voyage up
Barrow Strait in 1907.
Commander Bernier had three executive officers, two
engineers, a purser, surgeon, historiographer, meteoro-
logist, geologist, naturalist, and 31 men; 43 all told.
Leaving Quebec in July 1908, the Gauss proceeded up
Davis Strait and Baffin Bay to Etah in Smith Sound.
Bernier then entered Lancaster Sound, and went up
Barrow Strait, Melville Sound, and M’Clure Strait,
examining the Resolute’s large depot at Dealy Island.
He wintered in Parry’s Winter Harbour, sending two
parties across to annex Banks Island and Victoria Island.
Leaving Winter Harbour on August 12th, 1909, he
1 No Man’s Land, Camb. Univ. Press, 1906.
CH. XLI] Bernier 363
proceeded to sound Byam Martin and Austin Channels,
and sailed down Barrow Strait to Navy Board Inlet,
which he entered, passing down the channels and coming
out at Pond’s Bay. He returned to Canada after com-
pleting a well planned and most successful voyage.
The geographic board of Canada have done excellent
service to Arctic geography by taking in hand the question
of nomenclature, making a complete list of place names,
and giving single names to islands which had previously
been covered with names like an advertisement hoarding,
without reference to geographical features.
CHAPTER XLII
EAST COAST OF GREENLAND—DANISH EXPEDITIONS
THE discovery of the east coast of Greenland by the
Danes should take an important place in the history of
Arctic enterprise. Their objects were most praiseworthy,
the work was done with thoroughness, dangers and
difficulties were faced with dauntless courage, and the
history was told with ability, and above all with modesty.
Finally success crowned their efforts. There is a dramatic
unity in the whole story which is fascinating.
We have seen that some pioneer work had been done
by Scoresby, Clavering, and Koldewey on part of this
coast, and the Danish Captain Graah had made an
important voyage in 1828-30. Otherwise the whole of
the eastern coast, from Cape Farewell to 82° 30’N.
where the northern coast begins, remained to be dis-
covered and explored. The Danes undertook this great
work with splendid resolution and zeal, and went steadily
on until it was completed?.
The great work was commenced in 1879 with the
despatch of the schooner Ingulf of the Royal Danish
Navy, with Commander Mourier and Lieut. Wandel on
board, to make a careful examination of the edge of
the ice on the east Greenland coast from latitudes 65°
to 69°. After this preliminary expedition another was
despatched in 1883 under Lieut. Gustav Holm, with
Lieut. Garde as second, both of the Royal Danish Navy,
who were to follow in the track of their distinguished
predecessor, Captain Graah, and penetrate beyond the
furthest point reached by him. The expedition left
Copenhagen on the 3rd May 1883, and arrived on the
18th July at Nanortalik, where head-quarters were to
1 The Danish Committee for the geographical and geological investiga-
tion of Greenland was formed in 1876, and a valuable periodical, the
Meddelelsey om Grénland, containing the narratives of the explorers and
the scientific results of the expeditions, has ever since been published
at Copenhagen.
cH. x1] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 365
be established, a short distance west of Cape Farewell.
Lieut. Holm arranged to use the Eskimo umiaks or
women’s boats, which are made of a light wooden frame
with seal-skin covering, flat-bottomed, easy to haul up
on the ice, to carry, or to repair, and at the same time
capable of taking a fairly good load. While the huts
for winter quarters were being constructed at Nanortalik,
Lieut. Holm was forming a large depét, exploring the
most southern fjords, and establishing pleasant relations
with the east coast natives. He returned on the 16th
of September, and found the winter quarters ready.
The main expedition, consisting of four umiaks
with five women rowers, and seven kayaks, started from
Nanortalik on the 5th May 1884; but found progress
very slow through the ice, and there was much detention.
On the 27th June a gale of wind scattered the floes
near the shore and some progress was made. Towards
the end of July it was arranged that Garde, with a
young scientific student named Peter Eberlin, should
return to Nanortalik, making collections by the way,
while Holm, with Hans Knudsen (another scientific
assistant) and the very intelligent interpreter Johan
Petersen, pushed onwards to the north with two umiaks,
six Eskimo men and two women, and a year’s provisions.
The furthest pomt attained by Captain Graah—the
Dannebrog Islands in 65° 18’ N.—was reached on the
25th August, the entrance to the Sermilik Fjord was
next passed, and Tasuisarsik reached in 65° 37’ N., where
Holm determined to pass the winter.
This proved to be an important base whence the
explorers could examine the intricate fjords and islands
of a district known to the natives by the name of Angmag-
salik, and all the winter they had constant communication
with a hitherto unknown tribe of Eskimo. Lieut. Holm
explored the chief part of the great Sermilik Fjord, and
during the winter, with the aid of the interpreter Petersen,
he was able to study the traditions and folk-lore of the
natives and to make a large and important ethnographic
collection. He also investigated the ice movements,
and came to the conclusion that Angmagsalik was the
most accessible position along the east Greenland coast.
The reason for this appears to be that the numerous
366 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
islands, ‘obstructing and dividing the current, cause it to
increase its force, so that here the ice floes are dispersed
in July and August. Lieut. Holm began his return
journey in July, was met by Lieut. Garde, who had
made many excursions up the numerous fjords, and finally
arrived at Copenhagen on October 3rd, 1885.
The most important result of Holm’s admirable
exploring work was the discovery of the district of
Angmagsalik, whence there could be annual communica-
tion with Denmark. Baron Nordenskidld, in the Sofia, had
penetrated the ice belt in 1883, and landed on September
4th in 65° 36’N., remaining until the next day, thus
confirming the conclusions of Lieut. Holm. In 1894
Holm, who had now attained the rank of Captain, had
the great satisfaction of selecting a site, and founding
the settlement of Angmagsalik in 65°30’N. It is
situated on the slope of a hill, on the east side of a large
island in the Tasuisarsik Fjord. The first colonial
manager was Captain Holm’s old comrade Johan Petersen,
who has conducted the combined civilising and com-
mercial undertaking with eminent ability for twenty
years, in co-operation with two missionaries. The
natives have concentrated their stations round the
Danish settlement and have received help during periods
of want and hunger. Nearly the whole East Greenland
population, numbering 550, have now been baptized, and
the people have adapted themselves to the use of the
articles the Danish store contains. South of Angmagsalik
the whole of this coast is depopulated, the last Eskimo
in the extreme south having moved in 1900 to the west
coast,
The botanist H. C. Kruuse, with his wife, wintered
at Angmagsalik in tgo1-2, and has since published an
exhaustive work on the flora of East Greenland?: and
Hr W. Thalbitzer, also with his wife, passed the winter
of 1905-6 at the same settlement, devoting himself to
ethnological and linguistic researches and the study of
Eskimo folk-lore?. In co-operation with Hr Thuren,
1 “Botanical Exploration of the East Coast of Greenland between
65°35’ and 74° 30’N.” by Chr. Kruuse (1904), Meddelelser om Grénland
(Heft. 30, Afd. 1), Kjobenhavn, 1907.
* Thalbitzer has published papers on the poetry and music of the
East Greenlanders, on their angekoks or priests, and on their dialect.
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CH. XLIt] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 367
he has also given an account of the melodies of the
Eskimos of the east coast.
The next important work was the discovery of the
coast between Holm’s furthest and the part surveyed
by Scoresby. In 1891 the Hecla, a sealing vessel of Trons-
berg, was hired, and an expedition commanded by Lieut.
C. Ryder of the Royal Danish Navy left Copenhagen on
the 7th June. Two months later she steamed into
Scoresby Sound and anchored about a hundred miles
beyond the entrance; whence several excursions were
made in boats. Ryder wintered in Scoresby Sound, and
the whole of that complicated system of long branching
fjords was discovered and explored. In the next season
all progress southward near the coast was stopped by
masses of floe ice along the shore. Ryder was obliged
to work his way out to sea and, after touching at the
point where Nordenskidld had landed, he returned to
Denmark, the portion of coast south of Scoresby Sound
alone remaining to be discovered. Excellent scientific
work was done by his expedition.
The next Danish work of exploration, by which at
length the discovery of East Greenland from Cape Fare-
well to Cape Bismarck was completed, is known as the
Carlsbergfondet Expedition’. It was commanded by
Lieut. G. Amdrup of the Royal Danish Navy. On a
previous occasion, in 1884, Amdrup had reached Angmag-
salik, where he wintered and did some good exploring
work to the north in the following spring, examining the
great Ikersuak glacier. On the r9th July, 1885, having
mapped a considerable length of coast-line, and made
large geological and ethnological collections, he had
reached Agga Island in 67° 32’, so that it would be
between this point and Scoresby Sound that he had to
extend his survey.
Lieut. Amdrup, in addition to the advantages of ex-
perience, had a very talented and efficient staff. Hartz,
who had been botanist with Ryder, was to take command
when Amdrup was away on the boat voyage. The rest
of the scientific staff consisted of Kruuse, another botanist,
! So called after a patriotic brewer named Carlsberg, who left his
brewery to a Trust, the profits to be expended on scientific work. As
the brewery is a lucrative business, the help to exploration from this
source has been very important.
368 8 =0Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
with Deichmann and Jensen as zoologists, Lieut. Koch
of the Danish Army as surveyor and draughtsman, and
Otto Nordenskidld, nephew of the great Arctic explorer,
as geologist. The instructions for the expedition were
signed by Admiral Wandel and Captain Holm.
On the 14th June, 1900, the Antarctic sailed from
Copenhagen with Amdrup and his scientific staff!. Amdrup
was to complete the survey from Scoresby Sound to
Angmagsalik in a boat, while Hartz continued the
researches connected with the region round Scoresby
Sound. On arriving off Cape Dalton in 69° 25’N.,
Lieut. Amdrup left the ship, and set out on his boat
voyage on July 21st accompanied by young Mikkelsen
and two seamen. The voyage occupied 44 days, and
on September 2nd Angmagsalik was reached. Meanwhile
Hartz, in the ship, explored the coast from Cape Dalton
to Scoresby Sound, thence proceeding to Angmagsalik
to pick up Amdrup and his party. Large and valuable
collections were made, excellent series of observations were
taken, and the work was brought to a most successful
conclusion. The Amdrup expedition marks a period in
Arctic history, It completed the discovery and mapping
of the whole of the east coast of Greenland from Cape
Farewell to Cape Bismarck.
A far more dangerous and difficult enterprise now
faced the gallant Danish explorers, namely the discovery
of the unknown region from Cape Bismarck to the furthest
north, a distance of 400 miles?.
The American explorer Peary, using Eskimos and
their dogs, had been working to reach the north coast
of Greenland from 1898 to 1902. His first winter was
at Cape Dobbin on the west coast of Ellesmere Island,
1 A Swedish expedition under Professor Nathorst in the Antarctic
had reached Scoresby Sound in July 1899, and afterwards explored and
mapped the previously unknown and complicated system of fjords forming
the inner branches of Davy Sound, proving that they were connected
with Franz Josef Fjord. In September 1899 Nathorst left the coast,
and his ship the Antarctic was used in the following year for the Carlsberg-
fondet Expedition.
2 His Royal Highness Philippe Duc D’Orléans made a voyage to that
part of the coast on board the Belgica with M. Gerlache as his master in
1905. He stood northwards along the land ice, and succeeded in effecting
a landing to the north of Cape Bismarck in 77° 36’N. On July 31st he was
in 78° 16’, the furthest north ever attained by a ship on this coast, and he
could see as far as 78° 30’. In August he again landed in 77° 36’, the place
receiving the name of Cape Philippe.
cu. xt] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 369
another was passed at Etah, whence, starting on the 4th
March, 1900, he made his way to the Discovery’s winter
quarters in Lady Franklin Bay. Setting out from that
position on April 15th, he travelled along the north
coast of Greenland, passing the discoveries of Beaumont
and Lockwood. From Lockwood Island in 83° 34’N.,
which he reached on May 8th, he went onwards to a
latitude of 83° 39'N., which appears to be the most
northern point of Greenland. On the tgth he passed
a promontory which he named Cape Bridgman, and his
furthest point was called Cape Clarence Wycloff in
Lat. 82° 57'7’”" N. and Long. 23° 9’ W., where a cairn was
built. He had his man Henson and an Eskimo with him,
and a team of dogs. During the last two days he was
enveloped in a dense fog. He began his return on
May 22nd and reached the Discovery’s winter quarters
on June roth. The cairn in 82° 57’ N. would, therefore,
be the point the Danes would have to reach in order
to complete the discovery of the east coast.
The great work was undertaken by a young Dane
named Mylius Erichsen, who was born at Viborg in
Jutland in 1872. He had visited the Danish settlements
on the west coast of Greenland, had crossed Melville
Bay, and wintered at Cape York; and he was now filled
with the patriotic desire to place the crown on the
edifice of Danish discovery. The task had become a
sacred one for him, and with such an impulse he
thought the goal must be reached if human power could
attain it.
The Duc d’Orléans had shown how far north a
ship might go, and the advice of experienced Arctic
explorers was that Erichsen should winter on board
ship, in a position to the north of Cape Bismarck, if
possible. The necessary funds were raised, with help
from the Government and the Carlsberg Fund, and a
Norwegian sealer of 450 tons was bought and named
the Danmark. She was built at Peterhead in 1885, was
well fortified against the ice, and had been fitted with a
screw propeller in 1892. A spacious laboratory was
built before the main hatchway; and besides four
others, she took two motor boats. Most of the sledges,
which were fitted with odometers, were made on board
M. I. 24
370 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
from Eskimo models, and 100 dogs were brought from
West Greenland. A motor carriage was also taken.
Erichsen was chief of the expedition, and Lieut. Trolle
of the Royal Danish Navy second in command and
captain of the ship. The cartographer was Lieut. Héeg
Hagen of the Danish Army, and Lieut. Johan Peter
Koch of the General Staff of the Danish Army, who had
done excellent surveying and cartographic work in the
Amdrup expedition as well as in Iceland, and who had
experience as a seaman, having qualified as master of
small ships, was the surveyor. The geologist was Jarner,
Johansen marine zoologist, Lindhard surgeon, Lundager
botanist, Manniche ornithologist, Wegener meteorologist
and physicist. The first mate was Lieut. Bistrup of the
Royal Danish Navy, the second and third mates Christian
and Gustav Trostrup, two artists Bertelsen and Frus
went as engineers, and such was the enthusiasm felt
for the expedition that two university students, Freuchen?
aged 20 and Hagerup a Norwegian, volunteered as
stokers, as well as Knudsen who was carpenter of the
ship. An ice pilot, Karl Ring, a steward, and four
seamen completed the complement. In addition there
were the three Eskimo dog drivers Broénlund (who had
been a curate at Jacobhavn), Tobias Gabrielsen, and
Olsen from Ritenbenk—27 all told.
The expedition, which was known as the Danmark
Expedition, left Copenhagen on the 24th June, 1906,
and after a long struggle with the ice the Danmark
was off Koldewey Island on the 13th August. Proceed-
ing northwards a large depot was landed at Cape Marie
Valdemar. Winter quarters were established near Cape
Bismarck in Lat. 76° 46’N., Long. 18° 37'W., in a
sheltered bay which was named Danmark Havn. The
explorers were thus on the very threshold of an undis-
covered region. During the following two years constant
journeys were made for various scientific purposes, for
laying out depéts, surveying, collecting specimens, etc.
The neighbourhood of Cape Bismarck was thus most
thoroughly explored and surveyed.
1 Freuchen, who came from Nykjgbing on the island of Falster, went
on a voyage to West Greenland as a stoker in order to obtain preliminary
training.
cH. XLII] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 371
Meanwhile there were diligent preparations during the
winter for the great northern journeys. There were two
extended sledge parties and two depdt sledge parties,
each with a team of 8 or g dogs and a load of 8ro lb.
This was to give two months’ provisions for men, and
one for dogs. The first sledge had Erichsen, Hagen, and
the dog driver Broénlund; the second, Koch, the artist
Bertelsen, and the dog driver Tobias Gabrielsen. The
auxiliary sledges were under Wegener and Trostrup.
The departure took place on the 28th March, Trostrup
going back on the 22nd April and Wegener on the 26th.
The explorers adopted an excellent plan of placing
strips of walrus hide on the runners of the sledges with
the hair outwards. Water was then poured along the
hide, which becoming ice, was held in place by the
hair. This was found to be an immense help to the dogs
in dragging.
Erichsen and Koch went on in company until the
Ist May, when they separated. Koch was to go
north to Peary’s furthest, and Erichsen to explore the
channel, which Peary stated to exist, separating Greenland
from the so-called Peary Land. The travelling had been
bad, with many snow-covered fissures dangerous for
the dogs, and lines of heavy pressed-up ice. A depot
sufficient to bring both sledges back safely had been
left in what was called Lambert Land, from that name
occurring on some old Dutch charts in 78° N. The land
projected much further east than was shown on the
map, which increased the distance by 180 miles},
When Erichsen and Koch parted they each had
15 days’ provisions for men, the same for dogs and 25 of
petroleum for fuel. Koch’s way was difficult, over
hummocks and soft snow very ill suited for dogs. Land
was not in sight. A course was shaped for the land, and
it was reached on the 7th May, six musk oxen being
obtained on the same day. On the 12th Peary’s cairn
was found in 82° 57’N., and the discovery of the east
coast of Greenland was completed. Koch continued to
advance as far as Cape Bridgman, which was reached
on May 21st. He was much hindered by dense fogs,
but was able to carry out the exploration of Hyde Fjord.
1 The easternmost point is in 81° 24’ N. and 12° W,
24—2
372 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
On the 21st, in spite of strict economy, the fuel ran
out, but the supply left at the depot was afterwards
found. Both Koch and his companion, the artist
Bertelsen, suffered seriously from living on musk ox
meat. On the 27th of May they quite unexpectedly
met Erichsen and Hagen. Erichsen’s party had shot
21 musk oxen, which had caused a good deal of delay.
They had explored Danmark’s Fjord, and Hagen had
made excellent sketches of this inlet. The inland ice
was bounded by cliffs of great height, and apparently
inaccessible. On the 28th Erichsen drove west into what
was called Independence Sound, while Koch began the
return journey, seeing that the depdts were in order
for Erichsen as he passed them. On June 23rd Koch’s
party reached the ship after an absence of 88 days, the
distance covered being 1200 miles measured by odometer.
This approaches the achievements of M’Clintock and
Mecham, but with the difference that while the English
did all the work themselves, the Danes had the work
done for them by dogs and dog drivers. Tobias, the
Eskimo, however, had made the finest dog-sledge journey
on record.
But tragedy was at hand; Erichsen, Hagen, and
Broénlund did not return. Relief expeditions were sent
out in the autumn but found no signs of them. The
second winter passed in sorrow and anxiety: it was
felt that they must have perished.
Several sledge journeys were undertaken during the
winter to lay out depdts, and also with geographical
and other scientific objects. The most important, con-
sisting of four men, Bertelsen (in command), Wegener,
Weinschank, and Lindhard, was conducted in the good
old British way by men dragging their own sledge. They
started on the 1st March with a load of 180 lb. per man.
On the gth they commenced the ascent of the inland ice,
which they found rough, with a surface like that of an
undulating sea. On the 13th they determined to take
the tent and sledge no further, and Wegener and Wein-
schank went on to the great “nunatak” or snow-free land
seen in the distance. They found that the inland ice
ended in a vertical wall 90 feet high, but they succeeded
in finding a place to descend, and thus landed on this
cH. xi] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 373
extensive “‘nunatak,’”’ an important discovery. It received
the name of “Dronning Luisa Land.” The distance across
the inland ice to the “nunatak” was 24 miles. The party
returned on the 3rd of April with collections of plants,
rocks, and fossils.
The expedition in search of their lost leader and
his comrades started March roth. It consisted of Captain
Koch and Tobias, each with a sledge and team of ten dogs,
and on March roth they reached the depot on Lambert
Land with great difficulty owing to fog, a head wind,
and drifting snow. They found the snow-covered entrance
to a small cave, and when some snow had been removed
they could distinguish the outlines of a human being
in a reindeer coat. It was Brénlund. At his feet was
a bottle with his diary, and the chart sketches drawn
by Hagen. The diary was in Eskimo and a single page
was written in Danish. It announced that the two
others perished in November in Seventy-nine Fjord
after an attempt to return by the inland ice. ‘I arrived
here,” it ran, “by waning moon, and can go no further
owing to frost-bites on feet and the darkness. Hagen
died on the 15th of November, and Mylius about ten
(two?) days later.’ Koch returned to the ship on
March 26th.
Brénlund’s diary was translated by Dr Christian
Rasmussen, lecturer in Greenlandic at Copenhagen, and,
with the two records found by Mikkelsen, the story of
the fatal but fruitful journey of the heroic Danes can
be pretty clearly made out. They had been misled by
Peary’s erroneous map. On parting with Koch they
drove away to the land in about 82° N. and first discovered
a long fjord turning S.W. for nearly 150 miles which they
named Danmark Fjord. They then entered another
narrow fjord of about the same length running west
and ending near the position where Peary placed his
“Navy Clifft.” As there was no Independence Bay,
Erichsen called this fjord “Independence Sound.” He
1 Peary’s point at the place he calls “Navy Cliff,’’ where he says
he saw the sea and called it “Independence Bay,” is over a hundred
miles from the sea or any bay. He may have seen the end of the long
narrow fjord which Erichsen discovered. But his channel across Greenland
does not exist, and there is continuous land between the position Peary
gives to his Navy Cliff and his Heilprin Land to the north.
374. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParT1
discovered that it ended, and that the channel across
Greenland was imaginary. The Danish explorers arrived
at the head of this fjord on June 8th and remained
there, mapping and exploring, for several days. Two
branch fjords were discovered, one to the south named
after Hagen, and one to the north after Brénlund,
In the Arctic regions the summer has not the extreme
cold of the Antarctic summer, but it brings greater
suffering to the explorer. Water forms on the floes,
often more than knee deep, open water suddenly appears
cutting off communications, and long delays are caused
before young ice will bear. To these obstacles the
gallant Danish explorers were exposed, though they
were fortunately able to obtain a certain amount of
game. The summer was the cause of their destruction.
It was passed near the entrance of Danmark Fjord
from June to August. The snow was soft and deep,
and water-making, and at last there was no ice across
the fjord. They had to travel over the hills to reach
a fresh hunting ground at Sjellands Sletten. Here musk
oxen, hares, brent geese, and ptarmigan were obtained.
But the dogs were failing, and much reduced in number.
Foot-gear was wearing out, and Hagen, with Brénlund’s
help, tried to make boots out of the leather bag for the
sextant. Fuel was all used, but there was some drift-
wood, and one of the sledges was broken up. At length,
in October, the ice bore, and the return journey was
commenced along the coast to Lambert Land depét.
But their troubles continued. They were stopped by
open water at Antarctic Bay, and had no alternative
but to take to the inland ice. Nearly exhausted, with
few dogs left, it took them four days to drag the sledge
up to the ice cap. They continued to work their way
south, dying men, but unconquered and resolute to the
last. They were not perishing from want of food, but
from frost-bites, illness, misery, and exhaustion. They
descended into Seventy-nine Fjord on their way to the
Lambert Land depét, and then the end came. It had
been a terrible journey. Hagen died on the 15th of
November, Erichsen two days afterwards. Taking his
diary and Hagen’s maps and drawings, Brénlund staggered
on to the depét, where as we have seen, his body was
cH. xi] Danish Expeditions to Greenland 375
found by Koch. The bodies of the two noble explorers
rest in the midst of their vast discoveries.
Erichsen had organised and conducted the expedition
with great energy and quite exceptional ability. His
last great journey was splendid in its conception, in its
scientific results, and in its heroic end. He was an
ideal leader and beloved by his companions. Hagen,
too, was no less a loss to science, an observer of the
first rank and a dauntless enthusiast.
Lieut. Trolle succeeded to the command of the
expedition. The energy and unceasing activity of its
members was marvellous, and a mere list even of the
various expeditions would need more space than can be
given here. One of the most important, led by the geo-
logist Jarner, was the complete survey and exploration
of Clavering’s Ardencaple Inlet, which was examined and
mapped up to the two upper branches during 42 days in
the spring, large collections of plants and fossils being
made, and men and dogs returning in excellent condition.
For the extent of discoveries made, and for the
continuous activity of all its members during two winters
and three working seasons the Danmark Expedition
has few equals. Its members did much scientific work,
and did it thoroughly, bringing home valuable observa-
tions and large collections. The winter quarters were
left on July 21st, and the ship finally arrived at Copen-
hagen on the 23rd August, 1908.
CHAPTER XLIII
LATER GREENLAND EXPLORATIONS—MIKKELSEN,
RASMUSSEN—KOCH
*
MIKKELSEN
THE quest of any further information respecting the
Erichsen expedition was a worthy object, and it called
forth the zealous enthusiasm of Einar Mikkelsen, the
gallant young explorer who had alreadv served in the
expedition of Captain Amdrup, and had later won fame
from his fine effort in the Beaufort Sea. He received
the warm encouragement of his former chief Amdrup, of
Captain Holm, and others; a Committee was formed, a
fund was raised, half contributed by the Danish Govern-
ment, and the Alabama of Stavanger (only 40 tons) was
bought, strengthened, equipped, and supplied with 18
months’ provisions. Dogs were obtained in Greenland.
Mikkelsen had with him Lieut. Laub of the Danish Navy,
Lieut. Jorgensen of the Danish army, Iver Iversen, a
naval engineer, Olsen and Paulsen, mates, and the car-
penter, Carl Unger.
The Alabama sailed from Copenhagen on the 2oth of
June, 1909, and after many difficulties and much danger
from the ice arrived safely off Shannon Island. An
autumn journey was made to the place where Brénlund
died, which proved a most dangerous undertaking. It
was indeed a race for life against water, thin ice, and
darkness. The body was found, a grave was built over
it, and memorials were deposited. The party returned
on December 18th, 1909, after an absence of 95 days, one
of the most remarkable autumn Arctic journeys on record.
During the first winter, in the hope of finding docu-
ments, Mikkelsen resolved to undertake a journey to
Danmark Sound by crossing the glacial land, a novel and
hazardous undertaking. He made direct for the head of
the fjord, and for part of the way was accompanied by
Lieut. Laub with another dog sledge. Mikkelsen had only
Sy "
GREENLAT
ae
C. Farewell
{4e wfiG
378 <Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
one companion, the engineer Iver Iversen, a good cook,
an expert dog driver, anda man of many accomplishments.
The two sledges carried respectively 600 and 650 Ib. of
provisions and were drawn one by nine and the other by
eleven dogs.
On April 1st Mikkelsen and Laub found that they were
by observation no less than 15 miles south of their dead
reckoning, much to their surprise and dismay——only an-
other proof of the uselessness of dead reckoning unless
checked by astronomical observations. It was intended
that Laub should travel round the west side of the large
nunatak called Dronning Luisa’s Land and then return
round the south end. At the north end of the land there
was a little moss here and there, but no sign of any living
thing. Bad weather, excessively difficult marching, and
shortage of provisions obliged Laub and his two companions
to return by the way they came, and on reaching the
winter quarters they found that the Alabama had “filled
and sunk, and their shipmates were ina tent. Eventually,
however, they were able to build a house with some of the
ship’s timbers.
Meanwhile Captain Mikkelsen and his companion
Iversen continued their march, making a very remarkable
and difficult journey across the inland ice direct to the
head of the Danmark Fjord which, it will be remembered,
had been discovered by Erichsen. On May 18th they
reached the head of the fjord. Several remains of
Erichsen’s party were found, then a record, and ultimately
a second record. Erichsen recorded this discovery of the
long fjord, at the head of which was Peary’s furthest
point, with two fjords branching from it. He had also
found that Peary’s strait across Greenland had no exist-
ence. This information was important, as Mikkelsen had
intended to return by the imaginary channel and the
west coast of Greenland, in which case he and his com-
panion would probably have perished. As it was, the
return by the coast with the dogs worn out, deep soft
snow, and much surface water, was a sufficiently dangerous
undertaking. Mikkelsen was for some time unable to
walk, and the explorers went through great hardships.
At length, after terrible sufferings, the two men re-
turned to the winter quarters, only to find that their ship
CH. XLIIT] Rasmussen 379
had sunk and that all their companions had gone home
in a vessel that arrived in the summer. A house, needing
much repair and full of snow, had been built out of timber
from the wreck, and there were provisions. In view of
the paucity of game, their companions considered that
they would serve the absent men best by returning when
there was a chance, thus avoiding the consumption of
the remaining provisions. ‘They were all persuaded that
Captain Mikkelsen would succeed in fighting his way
through, armed as he was with iron energy and great
Arctic knowledge, and with a companion who would stick
to him through thick and thin.”
At last a vessel arrived to rescue them, after three
winters, and the two heroic explorers were brought safely
back to Copenhagen. This expedition, with its aspira-
tions accomplished and its valuable results, stands high
in the polar record. Mikkelsen’s reward was the appre-
ciation of his work by the scientific geographers of all
countries. His interesting narrative is contained in the
Story of the Alabama Expedition, 1909-1912.
RASMUSSEN
The expedition across Greenland led by Knud Ras-
mussen, a Dane born in Greenland, is of very special
interest because it inaugurates what is intended to be a
permanent system of exploring work, which at the same
time undertakes the protection of the Arctic Highlanders,
that most interesting tribe, quite uncontaminated by
contact with civilisation when first discovered by Sir John
Ross in 1818 and visited by the writer in 1850. Under
modern conditions the protection of the Danish Govern-
ment is much needed by these well-intentioned but simple
and isolated people.
With this most laudable object Rasmussen in July
rgto formed a settlement among these people in Wolsten-
holme Sound, which he called ‘‘ Thule.” In the following
year, becoming anxious for the safety of Mikkelsen and
his companion, he organised an expedition to cross
Greenland with the hope of relieving them. This was the
main object, discovery being secondary.
Rasmussen’s expedition was a thoroughly efficient one.
He was accompanied by two Eskimos and by young
380 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
Freuchen who had served with Erichsen, a joyous com-
rade, a cartographer, and possessed of hardihood and
great endurance. With four sledges and 54 dogs they
started from the Clements Markham glacier, a little to
the north of Whale Sound, on the roth of April, 1912.
They soon found that tents were much better than snow
huts, and the walrus meat they took with them kept the
dogs in good condition. The highest part of Greenland
on this meridian was found to be 7300 feet. In descending
into the Danmark Fjord of Erichsen some dogs fell over
precipices, but otherwise all were in good condition. Their
rate of travelling was fast, 17 journeys bringing them to
Danmark Fjord, 504 miles. Rasmussen travelled down
Danmark Fjord for 72 miles, until he reached the sea, and
then proceeded up another fjord of great length, running
nearly east and west. This was all Erichsen’s ground.
It was found that the coasts of the fjord were more fre-
quented by game and had more vegetation on the north
than on the south side. On June 17th the head of the
long fjord was reached, some extensive ice-free land was
discovered, and a glacier leading to the inland ice. Peary’s
record was found by Freuchen, on a height quite at the
end of the fjord. His incomplete observations, as already
stated, caused the recording of a non-existent channel
from the east to the west coast of Greenland, and the
publication of quite erroneous maps for many years.
At the end of the long fjord discovered by Erichsen,
which he called Independence Fjord, Rasmussen found
a steep glacier, and on the north side a valley full of
flowers, which he named Valmuedalen, or the valley of
poppies. Here the party rested for a few days and shot
several musk oxen. The return was commenced on
August 8th by ascending the glacier with great difficulty.
They still had 27 dogs; and Thule was safely reached on
September 15th, 19t2. The return journey alone covered
621 miles, the double journey 1200 miles—the finest ever
performed by dogs.
By this remarkable and well-conducted journey Ras-
mussen corrected the errors on our maps and made
important discoveries. It is his intention, while guarding
the interests and looking after the welfare of the Arctic
CH. XLII] Koch 381
Highlanders from his station at Thule in Wolstenholme
Sound, to undertake further exploring expeditions.
In the same year Drde Quervain, a Swiss, madea journey
over the inland ice of Greenland, much further south, from
Jacobshavn in Disco Bay, on a S.E. course to Angmags-
salik on the east coast. His highest point was 8200 feet.
Kocu
The latest journey across Greenland from the east to
the west coast was specially interesting because ponies
were used instead of dogs. Captain Koch, the accom-
plished companion of Mylius Erichsen, when he decided
upon undertaking a much more northern crossing, resolved
to attempt the difficult enterprise with ponies. Sixteen
of these were landed, but unfortunately there was a
stampede and only ten ponies were recaptured. The
companions of Captain Koch were three Danes named
Larsen, Wegener, and Vigfus. The intention was to
winter at the interesting Dronning Luisa nunatak, but
after two months of hard work it was found that the
complete ascent could not be made before winter set in,
and it became necessary to establish winter quarters on
the icy ascent. To add to their misfortune Captain Koch
fell down a crevasse and broke his leg. They had brought
the materials for a house, which was duly erected, and
served its purpose well during the winter, though — 72°
Fahr. was registered. Several ponies died and others
were used for food.
By the spring Captain Koch had recovered from his
very serious accident and the march across Greenland, a
distance of 700 miles on this meridian, was commenced
on April 2oth with five ponies and five sledges. Violent
storms had to be faced and the ponies suffered severely
from exhaustion and snow blindness. No land was seen
from May 6th until July 2nd. A height of nearly 9800 ft.
was attained in 43° W. and 74°30’ N. On July 4th the
margin of the ice on the west side was reached, and the
last remaining pony was killed. The descent was made,
and a fjord called Lax (salmon) Fjord was crossed on a
raft constructed of the sledge and poles. They were then
weather-bound without food for 35 hours. The party
382 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
was ultimately rescued by a sailing boat, which took them
to the Danish settlement of Proven.
The difficulties encountered, the dangers faced and
overcome, the sufferings bravely endured, the scientific
work throwing light on the climatic conditions and physio-
graphy of the Greenland interior, place all these Danish
enterprises very high in the glorious record of polar
discovery.
CHAPTER XLIV
CONCLUSION
Tue long and glorious story of Arctic discovery is
drawing to a close. Two unknown areas of unequal
importance remain. One is the extensive region now
known as Baffin Island, which needs thorough explora-
tion, and will doubtless receive it from the Dominion
Government in due time. The other is the part known
as the Beaufort Sea, a much more extensive unknown
area from Prince Patrick and Baring or Banks Islands
westwards to the Liakhov Island between the 7oth and
8oth parallels of North Latitude, and indeed much
further to the north. Future explorers have still before
them the problem of the distribution of land and water
over this unknown region. Ever since I collected vestiges
of Eskimo encampments along the shores of the Parry
Islands and became convinced that the wanderers came
from the west, I have been inclined to expect the discovery
of land in this area. The description of the ice off the
west coast of Banks Island confirmed me in the belief of a
land-locked sea. Deductions from the additional know-
ledge furnished by the Nares Expedition rather shook
my belief on some grounds, but the apparent impossibility,
if there is no land, of all the ice over so vast an ocean
escaping between Spitsbergen and Greenland was an argu-
ment on the other side. Professor Spencer and Dr Harris
support the view that there is undiscovered land north-
ward over the Beaufort Sea on grounds connected with
tidal phenomena. Dr Harris’s view is that this land is
of great extent, stretching away far to the north. The
existence of an archipelago, of continental land, or of
a continuous ocean is the problem to be solved—the
remaining Arctic achievement of the future.
Impressed with this conviction I read a paper at a
meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on
November 13th, 1905, on ‘“‘The Next Great Arctic
384 <Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Discovery,’ and subsequently Einar Mikkelsen very
gallantly undertook the enterprise, but with inadequate
means. He was only able to show his pluck, energy,
and resourcefulness. He made a fine journey over the
ice to the northward of the Alaska coast, and ascertained
the position of the edge of the continental shelf. He
encountered a wide lane of water stopping his return,
but at once set to work to contrive a means of crossing,
and succeeded. The difficulties Mikkelsen overcame by
his resourcefulness and the way in which he met disasters
proved that, with funds at his command, he was fitted
for the leadership of a large expedition. At the same time
that the gallant young Dane was struggling with adversity,
including the loss of his little vessel, Mr Harrison was
doing excellent geographical work in the delta of the
Mackenzie River and making himself thoroughly ac-
quainted with the Eskimo inhabitants. The discovery
of this region was later undertaken by the Government
of Canada, but the expedition ended in failure.
We may now look back on all the expeditions,
extending over more than a thousand years, that we
have passed in review, and sum up the result as regards
Arctic lands. The islands on the continental shelves
and the bordering continental lands must be regarded
as comprising the whole of the terrestrial Arctic Regions,
and geographers should look upon problems connected.
with those regions from that point of view. On the
Siberian side the shelf is described to us from careful
personal observation by Nansen. We see the group
of New Siberian Islands rising from it, with their mam-
moth ivory and cliffs of fossil wood. We then contemplate
the land masses of Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land,
and Spitsbergen rising from the Barentsz and Kara Seas,
with the marvellous tale they tell of the former condition
of the region in recent geological times. Next, on the
further side of the great southerly ice-stream, is the
continental mass of Greenland, with its glaciation only
surpassed in grandeur and extent by the Antarctic ice-
cap. Then come the somewhat analogous land masses
of Baffin and Ellesmere Islands, with the separating
straits and channels, and finally the intricate Parry
Archipelago to the north of the American continent..
CH, XLIvV] Conclusion 385
These lands bordering on or rising from the continental
shelf form the Arctic Regions as we know them. But
between the Parry Archipelago and the Siberian shelf
there is the vast area in and to the north of the Beaufort
Sea, to which I have just referred and of which we know
almost nothing. Our knowledge of the Arctic regions will
remain incomplete until this area has been discovered and
explored.
When we now look back on the history of Arctic
enterprise from the earliest times it is impossible not
to be struck with the high qualities it brought so frequently
to light, and the fine record of courage and endurance
it presents for our admiration, The objects have differed,
but there has throughout been the same splendid contempt
for danger and hardship, and the same resourcefulness
and habit of quick decision brought out by the nature
of the work on which the explorers were engaged.
The Norsemen, and afterwards the Danes, have
been the colonisers, undertaking the hardest and most
difficult work of all, and they furnish a record of com-
mercial success and civilising influence on the natives
which places them in the first rank among Arctic labourers
in a hard but fruitful field. Next come the English
adventurers seeking for a shorter route to India by the
north-west, the north-east or the north; and thereafter the
period of fishers and trappers, when it was shown of what
immense value were the products of the Arctic regions.
First the Dutch established whale-fisheries in Spitsbergen
and Davis Strait, and then the English who, in the person
of Scoresby, combined commercial profit with scientific
research. The labours of these daring whale-fishers
enriched and gave prosperity to numerous communities,
while beginning later, but working contemporaneously,
we see the Hudson’s Bay Company opening up the
wilderness, accumulating wealth, and largely influencing
Europeans and natives for good.
The Russians, too, achieved a great work in delineating
the whole northern coast of Siberia. Then came the
great era of Ross, Parry, and Franklin; a time of heroic
effort, of vast discoveries, and above all of the ceaseless
training of men in ice-work, the training of men, that
is, alike for science and for war. In this Arctic work
M. LL 25
386 3 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PaRT1
we see the nursery of a Nelson, a Riou, a Nias, a Sherard
Osborn, and such men as Sabine, Beechey, and Foster.
The expeditions in search of Sir John Franklin and
his gallant companions raised Arctic work to the highest
plane it has yet attained. The motive was the highest
that has ever actuated polar or any other discovery,
the cause of humanity. Very extensive discoveries were
made and the art of sledge travelling with men was
prought nearly to perfection.
After the completion of the Franklin search and the
return of the Nares expedition, Americans, Norwegians,
Swedes, and Austro-Hungarians stepped in. The best
of the American Arctic leaders were Greeley and De
Long, although their expeditions ended in misfortune,
for they were instructed officers, with a strong feeling
of responsibility and of the obligations of duty. The
work they did was well done and reliable. The expeditions
of Nordenskidld and Nansen stand by themselves owing
to the personality of those leaders. The Swede was a
man of high scientific and literary attainments, the
Norwegian alike a man of action and a profound student,
an unusual combination. He is endowed with rare
gifts. His ideas almost amounted to prescience, and he
was equally sagacious in working them out to practical
conclusions. He drew back the veil which had concealed
the Arctic secret. Although the English occupy the first
place in Arctic discovery, yet it was begun and was com-
pleted by Scandinavians—by Erik the Red and Fridtjof
Nansen.
In the history of mankind since the Christian era,
the annals of Arctic discovery occupy a very glorious
place. They run like a bright silver thread through
the darker tales of war and crime, for the most part
showing the nobler side of the qualities of our race.
PART i
THE; ANTARCTIC REGIONS
CHAPTER XLV
THE GREAT SOUTHERN CONTINENT
THE Far South waited much longer for the attention
of mankind than the Arctic regions. Antarctica has had
no dwellers on the threshold, no demigod clearing its
circle on Sleipner or any other fabled horse, no Norsemen
daring its icy solitudes, scarcely even a tradition ; although
the anonymous Franciscan, in the fourteenth century, when
he was in Prester John’s country, heard that the four rivers
of Paradise flowed from an inaccessible mountain of great
height at the south pole?.
The Antarctic regions were first approached by Euro-
peans by following the coast line of the continent which
stretches furthest south. Magellan, with that indomitable
perseverance which characterised him, continued, in spite
of all difficulties, to force his way south until he dis-
covered the strait which led him into the Pacific Ocean.
After that it was the contrary winds, driving ships to
the south, which led to further discoveries in an Antarctic
direction. The next Spanish fleet which passed through
the Strait after Magellan was under the command of
Garcia Jofre de Loaysa, with Sebastian del Cano as
second in command. Seven vessels sailed from Coruna
in 1525, one of the smallest being the Sé Lesmes, with
Francisco de Hozes as captain. This little craft of 80 tons
was blown out of the strait, and driven down as far south
as 55°, sighting land, the eastern end of Staten Island.
Adverse gales also drove Sir Francis Drake to new dis-
coveries. In October, 1578, he thus unintentionally fell
in with “the uttermost part of lands towards the South
Pole.” The latitude was 56°S. and “there was no
maine nor iland to be seen to the southwards; the
Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea meeting in a most large
and free scope.”” Drake named this southern cape of the
1 Book of the Knowledge of all the Kingdoms, p.35 (Hakluyt Society,
Series II, vol. xxrx, 1912.)
390 «= eA vctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTUM
island after the great Queen, Cape Elizabeth, the Cape
Horn of the Dutch. Twenty years afterwards another
discovery-causing gale produced results. An expedition
of four vessels and a small pinnace left Holland in
June, 1598, under the command of Jacob Mahu, whose
death placed it under Simon de Cordes. The object was
to visit the coasts of Chile and Peru for plunder, and then
cross the Pacific. After leaving the Strait of Magellan all
the ships were scattered. The flag-ship Hope reached
Japan in April, 1600, where the pilot, an Englishman
named William Adams, was detained until his death,
though he was able to send home very interesting letters.
The little pinnace of 18 tons named Blijde Boodschap
(Good News) was driven down to 64°S., where her Captain,
Dirk Gerritsz, saw “high land with mountains covered
with snow, like the land of Norway?.” M. Gerlache has
named the islands which he discovered, and which, with
Graham Land form the Gerlache channel—“ Dirk Gerritsz
Archipelago,” for his latitude shows that this was possibly
the land he sighted. Returning northwards in search of
his consorts, Dirk Gerritsz put into Valparaiso, where his
ship was taken by the Spaniards and he was wounded. He
was sent a prisoner to Lima, but news of his proceedings
reached Holland, though not of his fate.
On June r4th, 1615, an expedition left Holland ap-
parently with the object of finding a way to the Pacific
to the south of Magellan’s Strait. Willem Cornelisz
Schouten of Hoorn commanded the Eendracht of 220 tons,
with Jacob le Maire, a son of the owner, as principal
merchant. In January, 1616, Schouten discovered the
strait between Tierra del Fuego and an island which he
named Staaten Island. The strait was named after Le
Maire. He thought the island was part of the Antarctic
Continent. On the 29th the most southern land was
sighted—the Cape Elizabeth of Drake—and named Cape
Horn. When the Spanish Government heard of these
proceedings they fitted out an expedition to verify the
Dutch discoveries. It consisted of two caravels com-
manded by two brothers named Nodal. They carried
out their instructions with ability and success from
September, 1618 to July, 1620, passing through the Strait
1 Burney I, 198.
cu.xtv] The Great Southern Continent 391
of Le Maire, rounding Cape Horn, and being the first to
circumnavigate Tierra del Fuego. They gave the name of
San Ildefonso to Cape Horn. Moreover they got still
nearer to the Antarctic regions, discovering rocks in
56° 31’ 8”, fifty-seven miles S.W. of Cape Horn, which
they named Diego Ramirez after their pilot.
While the explorers, by the action of adverse gales,
were thus painfully making discoveries in the far south,
the map-makers were presenting geographical students
with a vast southern continent. In the map of the
world by Ortelius (Antwerp, 1570) the outline of this
“Terra Australis’ is carried round the world as far
north, in some places, as the tropic of Capricorn.
Australia is included in it, but New Guinea is an island.
There is the mysterious gold-yielding province called
Beach, on a peninsula near Java Minor. In the G. de
Jode’s map of 1578, New Guinea is made part of Terra
Australis. Mercator, in his Duisburg map of 1587, has
the Beach province and Java Minor, following Ortelius.
The map of 1589 makes New Guinea an island again.
The southern continent is shown in the same way on the
Molyneux globe. The Mercator Atlas, published by
Hondius at Amsterdam in 1623, represents the Terra
392. «Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [part u
Australis in the same way as Ortelius, as does the Hexham
Atlas, even after the return of Schouten and Le Maire.
All these maps treat Tierra del Fuego as a_pro-
montory of the great Terra Australis. This vast con-
tinent of the map-makers originated in some idea that
the amount of land in the two hemispheres should balance
each other. Its effect was, on the whole, useful, for it
led to a desire among men of action to look for and
discover the unknown land, and it is always a good
thing when anyone undertakes to look for anything.
It was while serving with Mendafia, in his second
voyage, that Pedro Fernandez de Quiros conceived his
grand project, after studying and pondering over the maps
of the world with their great southern continent. He
thought that here might be a discovery as famous as that
achieved by Columbus or Da Gama. After long waiting
he at length obtained an order from Philip III to the
Viceroy of Peru, to fit out an expedition with himself in
command, for the discovery of the Antarctic continent.
Quiros proceeded to Lima in 1603, but it was two years
before the two small vessels were equipped and ready
for sea. The plan of Quiros was to steer E.S.E. from
Callao until he reached the latitude of 30°S., when he
fully expected to have arrived at the southern continent
shown on the maps. He continued on this course from
December 21st to January 22nd, when he was in 26°S.
There was a great swell from the south, and the men
became alarmed. Quiros then came to the unlucky
resolution of altering course to E.N.E. His excuse was
that the crew were mutinous and that he was ill in bed.
If he had gone on he would have discovered New Zealand.
Thus ended, rather ignominiously, the first intended
Antarctic voyage. Quiros discovered the New Hebrides,
and his second in command finally separated Australia
from New Guinea by discovering Torres Strait, but the
Antarctic project came to an end.
About this time there was a Memorial written by
a Chilean lawyer named Juan Luis Arias, on the dis-
covery of an antarctic continent and the conversion of
its inhabitants. This Memorial contains the statement
that Juan Fernandez, the navigator who discovered
the quickest route from Callao to Valparaiso, led an
cH.XLV] The Great Southern Continent 393
expedition from Chile which discovered the coast of
the southern continent, landed on it, and had communi-
cation with the natives. But the story is not authentict.
More than a century passed without any further thought
of the reputed continent round the antarctic pole. In
1675 an English merchant named Anthony La Roche,
returning from the South Pacific, discovered the land
to which Captain Cook afterwards gave the name of
South Georgia. In 1738, the French East India Com-
pany sent two vessels under the command of Captain
Lozier Bouvet to discover a peninsula in the South
Atlantic said to form part of the southern continent.
Bouvet sighted land in 54°S. and 11° E., but did not
ascertain whether it was a peninsula or an island. He
called it Cap Circoncision?.
Hitherto the discoveries in the far south had for the
most part been accidental, and there had only been one
real antarctic expedition, that of Quiros, which too soon
altered course from south, hesitating near the threshold,
and met with failure in consequence.
1 Dalrymple and Burney take it seriously. I included it among the
documents in my Voyages of Quiros, but I now quite agree with my old
friend Benjamin Vicufia Mackenna that it is a fabrication. (See Vicufia
Mackenna’s Historia de Juan Fernandez.)
2 Cook and Ross searched for this small island in vain, but several
of Mr Enderby’s sealing vessels found and visited Bouvet Island.
CEPA IER AVI
CAPTAIN COOK—BELLINGSHAUSEN
Ir was a bright page in English history when our
Government awoke to its duties in taking a lead in
discovery. In the instructions, dated June 17th, 1764,
to Commodore Byron, who was despatched to the Pacific
in that year, that duty is recognised in a very noble
passage :—
Whereas nothing can redound more to the honour of this nation
as a maritime power, to the dignity of the crown of Great Britain,
and to the advancement of the trade and navigation thereof than to
make discoveries of countries hitherto unknown; and whereas there is
reason to believe that lands and islands of great extent, hitherto un-
visited by any European Power may be found, His Majesty, conceiving
no conjuncture so proper for an enterprise of this nature as a time of
profound peace, which his kingdoms at present happily enjoy, has
thought fit that it should now be undertaken.
In this spirit our Government resolved to despatch
an expedition with the object of deciding the question
of the existence of a great southern continent such as
had long been delineated on maps of the world. Two
vessels built at Whitby, the Resolution (462 tons) and
Adventure (336 tons) were selected, and carefully fitted
out at Woolwich and Deptford with great store of anti-
scorbutics. Captain Cook received his appointment on
November 28th, 1771, with Captain Furneaux as his
second, on board the Adventure. Cook had with him two
of the Lieutenants who were in his first voyage, Clerke
and Pickersgill. Another Lieutenant, James Burney, was
the future Admiral and author of Voyages to the South
Seat. One of the midshipmen, Vancouver, was the future
explorer and surveyor of the north-west coast of America.
Johann Reinhold Forster and his son were appointed as
naturalists, and the Board of Longitude sent Mr Wales
to make astronomical observations. The Board also
supplied four chronometers, three by Arnold, and one
1 Elder brother of Madame D’Arblay.
cH.xLv1] Captain Cook—Bellingshausen 395
by Kendall on Harrison’s principle!. This was the first
British Antarctic Expedition.
On November 22nd, 1772, the expedition left the
Cape with the object of examining the edge of the ice
between that meridian and that of New Zealand. The
course was south, the two vessels keeping company, and
after some very severe weather the first iceberg was
sighted on the roth December in Lat. 50° 20’ 3” and
2° east of the Cape. On the 14th, after passing many
icebergs, the edge of the pack ice was reached. The
17th January, 1773, was a memorable day, for in the
forenoon the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first
time in the history of civilised man, in 39° 35'E. The
latitude at noon was 66° 36’ 30”S., and in the evening
30 icebergs were in sight, and much sailing ice. Captain
Cook perseveringly continued to examine the edge of the
ice for many days, until on March 26th, 1773, after being
122 days at sea and sailing over 3660 leagues, but never
once sighting land, Dusky Bay in New Zealand was
reached.
Tahiti and other islands were then visited, and on
November 26th, 1773, the Resolution left New Zealand to
resume her Antarctic work. On December 14th she was
among icebergs and loose ice in 64° 55'S. and 163° 20’ W.
Captain Cook continued his course to the south and on
the 2oth December crossed the Antarctic Circle for the
second time, surrounded by icebergs and loose pack,
with very thick weather. On the 26th the sea was dotted
with more than 300 bergs. A closely-packed mass of
ice, extending east and west as far as could be seen, was
reached on the 30th January, 1774. Captain Cook
counted g7 ice hills within the pack, many of them very
large, and looking like a ridge of mountains rising one
above another until they were lost in the clouds. Cook
adds that a mile within the pack there was solid ice in
one continuous compact body, rather low and flat, but
seeming to increase in height as it was traced to the
south, in which direction it extended beyond their sight.
The latitude was 71° 10’S., longitude 106° 54’ W.
Cook did not believe that it would have been im-
1 This chronometer is now in the museum of the United Service
Institution,
396 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTU
possible to force a way through this pack, but he thought
that it would not be justifiable to take a ship like the
Resolution into such danger. He therefore shaped a
northern course from this point, arriving at Easter
Island on the 11th March, 1774.
After making numerous important discoveries during
the rest of the year 1774, the great navigator left New
Zealand on November roth and the Resolution sailed
across the South Pacific, making for Cape Horn. On
the 19th of December they anchored in a bay on the
south-west coast of Tierra del Fuego, called Christmas
Sound. On the 28th they resumed their voyage,
rounded Cape Horn, passed through the Strait of Le
Maire, and sailed along the north coast of Staten Island,
of which Cook wrote an interesting account. On the
15th January, 1775, land was sighted in latitude 54°,
consisting of some small islands to which the name of
South Georgia was given. On the 31st another discovery
was made, which received the name of Sandwich Land.
The Cape was reached on March 21st. The expedition
arrived at Portsmouth in July, 1775.
Captain Cook had made the circuit of the southern
ocean in a high latitude, and had entirely swept away
the vast and imaginary Terra Australis of the map-
makers. He was, however, of opinion that there was
continental land of great extent nearer the pole, and that
he had seen part of it when he was at his extreme south.
He was thus the first to see land within the Antarctic
Circle. It was also his belief that the antarctic con-
tinent extended furthest to the north opposite the
southern Atlantic and Indian Oceans owing, for one
reason, to the greater degree of cold. In this he was
quite correct.
Many years passed before any further attempts at
geographical discovery were made in this region. At
length, however, the Russian Government, in July, 1819,
sent an expedition to the southern seas, consisting of
two vessels, the Vostak under Captain Bellingshausen,
commander of the expedition, and the Mirnyi under
Captain Lazareff. Bellingshausen, like Cook, made the
circuit of the southern ocean in high latitudes. He
cH.xLvI] Captain Cook—Bellingshausen 397
reached the edge of the pack in 69° 30’, and in March,
1820, arrived at Van Diemen’s Land. In October of the
same year he again sailed and kept to a high latitude,
between 60° and 67°, in the South Pacific. In January
1821 he reached 70°, his furthest south, in Long. 92°10’ W.
a short distance to the eastward of Cook’s furthest, but
not so far south. On the 11th of this month he discovered
an island in 69°S.and 91° W., nine miles long and _ap-
parently of very considerable altitude, but he was a long
way off. He named it Peter Island. The discovery is
important as indicating the extension of the continental
shelf to that point. Alexander Land was sighted further
east, in the same high latitude, but at a distance of
4o miles. In July, 1821, Bellingshausen’s expedition re-
turned to Cronstadt.
CHAPTER XLVII
THE SOUTH SHETLANDS. FOSTER—WEDDELL
DIscovERY south from Patagonia made very slow
progress. After three hundred years knowledge had only
reached Cape Horn, the rocks of Diego Ramirez, and the
distant view of land in 64° seen by Dirk Gerritsz. His
discovery, granting the latitude, must have been the
string of islands near the north-west coast of Graham
Land. At last a vessel on her way from Monte Video to
Valparaiso was, like the Good News of Dirk Gerritsz, driven
far to the south. This was a brig called the Wilkams
of Blythe, commanded by Captain William Smith. She
was in 61°S. when land was sighted in February, 1819,
and in a subsequent voyage, in October, Captain Smith
entered a bay, named by him George’s Bay, in one of the
largest of a group of islands. The group lay between 61°
and 63°S. and 54° and 63°W. A chart was drawn by
William H. Goddard, no doubt one of Captain Smith’s
officers, and the group was named the South Shetlands.
There were twelve islands reported and innumerable
rocks. A channel over 300 miles in width separates the
South Shetlands from Tierra del Fuego.
When Captain Smith arrived at Valparaiso in Novem-
ber 1819, he found there the senior officer, Captain Shirreff,
R.N., of H.M.S. Andromache. Captain Shirreff took a
great interest in the discovery of the South Shetlands,
and it was agreed that the discoverer should take
Mr Bransfield, the Master of the Andromache, with three
other officerst and some bluejackets to carry out an
extensive survey. The agreement was dated December
16th, 1819; and Mr Bransfield received full instructions
for his guidance in making a survey of the newly dis-
covered land. The Williams of Blythe, with the naval
1 Mr Poynter, Master’s Mate, Mr Blake and Mr Bone, Midshipmen,
Blake was eventually Admiral Patrick Blake, who did excellent service in
a fe China war, and was afterwards Captain of the Juno in the Pacific
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400 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Part
surveyors, arrived at George’s Bay on the 16th of
January, 1820. The season was late, but Mr Bransfield
surveyed the islands discovered by Smith and got as far
south as 63°. He returned to Valparaiso May 27th}.
The South Shetlands were the breeding grounds of
immense numbers of fur seals, and the news of this wealth
spread with incredible rapidity, so that in the very next
year there were from 30 to 50 American sealing vessels
among the islands, altering Captain Smith’s names, and
committing ruthless destruction. The pitiless slaughter
could have but one result and in two or three years the fell
work was done—the seals were practically exterminated.
Fanning’, the historian of these voyages, tells us that
the objects were sealing and discovery, but there can be
little doubt which was the preponderating motive. It is
much to be regretted that there was no authority to keep
within some bounds the cupidity of the sealers. In two
years 320,000 fur seals had been destroyed, besides at
least 100,000 young, owing to the loss of their mothers.
In 1821, the American Captains Pendleton, Williams,
Dunbar, and Palmer were at work. The volcano on
Deception Island was found to be active, and some
islands to the S.W. were discovered, not including Trinity
Island of the Admiralty Charts, which has been called
Palmer Island, in 63° 25'S. and 57°55’ W. Trinity Land is
on Bransfield’s chart. Captain Palmer continued to
make sealing voyages until 1829. The South Orkney
Islands were discovered by the English sealing captain
Powell in 1820.
In 1829 Captain Foster came to the South Shetlands
in the course of his scientific voyage, with the object of
taking pendulum observations, which occupied him for
two months®. He also explored the volcano on De-
ception Island. This very distinguished scientific Arctic
officer, born in 1796, began his career in the Conway
under Captain Basil Hall. He was with Clavering on
the east coast of Greenland, with Parry in his third voyage,
1 The writer’s uncle, John Markham, was an acting Lieutenant on
board the Andromache, and he made a copy of Mr Bransfield’s first chart.
There are 2% names on it.
2 Mr Fanning wrote Voyages vound the World, containing reports of the
voyages of Pendleton and Palmer.
8 At Pendulum Cove in King George’s Island.
CH. XLVII] The South Shetlands 401
and also surveying in Spitsbergen in 1827, and his ob-
servations were so meritorious that he was elected F.R.S.,
and received the Copley Medal. He commissioned the
Chanticleer in 1827 for pendulum observations and other
scientific work, and made an excellent survey of Staten
Island, and some of the South Shetland Islands. He
was accidentally drowned in the river Chagres in 1831,
and a monument was erected to his memory in the
church of his native village, Woodplumpton. Some
officers were serving on board the Chanticleer with Captain
Foster who were afterwards well known in the service,
Austin the Commodore of the chief Franklin search
expedition, Collinson, leader of another search expedition
and Deputy Master of the Trinity House, and Kendall
the eminent surveyor!. Dr Webster, the surgeon, wrote
the narrative of the voyage of the Chanticleer.
Thus was discovery in the direction of the Antarctic
regions, on the South American meridians, slowly pro-
secuted, and the South Shetland Islands were an im-
portant step in advance. But they are north of the Ant-
arctic Circle, and thus do not strictly speaking come
within the range of this book, belonging rather to the
geography of South America.
The first Antarctic voyage after the return of
Bellingshausen penetrated much further to the south, under
a very able leader. James Weddell was born in London
(or Ostend?) August 24th, 1787, and his father, who was
a working upholsterer, died soon after James was born.
The boy was bound apprentice in a Newcastle collier,
and afterwards made several voyages in a West Indiaman
until 1808, when having got into trouble owing to a
disagreement with his captain, which resulted in his
knocking the latter down, he was sent on board H.M.S.
Rainbow. Here he was rated a midshipman. He read
much, carefully studied navigation, and in 1810 was
appointed Master of the Frrefly, and later of the Thalia.
In 1812 he was appointed to the brig Avon under Com-
mander George (afterwards Sir George) Sartorius. After
1814 he was for three years on half pay. Sir George
Sartorius spoke of Weddell as one of the most efficient
1 Kendall wrote an account of Deception Island in the first volume of
the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.
M. I. 26
402 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PART
and trustworthy officers he had met with in the course
of his professional life.
In 1822 Mr Strachan of Leith engaged Captain
Weddell to conduct a sealing adventure in the Antarctic
seas in the brig Jane of Leith, 160 tons, with a crew of
22 officers and men. The cutter Beaufoy of London,
65 tons, 13 officers and men, was to be her consort,
commanded by Matthew Brisbane.
Sailing from the Downs on the 17th September, 1822,
Weddell proceeded direct for the Antarctic ice, and on
January 12th, 1823, he was in sight of the east end of the
South Orkneys. He landed there on the 15th and
secured 116 sea leopard skins. Still sailing south, Weddell
found himself on the 7th February among many ice-
bergs, one of them two miles long and 250 feet high.
He crossed the Antarctic Circle, and on the 14th, in Long.
68° 28’ W., there were 66 icebergs in sight. The current
was flowing N. 58°E., 27 miles in four days. But on
February 16th, in 70° 26’S. the sea was smooth and the
bergs had nearly disappeared. In 72° 33'S. there was
not a particle of ice to be seen. Weddell’s furthest south
was attained on the zoth February 1823, in 74° 15'S.
and 34° 16’ W. There were three icebergs in sight, many
whales, and innumerable birds, and it was very clear
weather. The sea received the name of “ King George IV
his Sea.’”’ In returning, Weddell met with less ice in 65°S.
in the end of February than he did in the end of January.
On the 12th March he sighted South Georgia (54° 2’)
and anchored in Adventure Bay.
It should be remembered that Weddell was only
incidentally a discoverer, and that his business was
sealing. His age was 35 when he reached his furthest
south. He continued to command merchant vessels, and
in May, 1831, in the Eliza, he gave assistance to Biscoe
in Tasmania. He died unmarried on September gth,
1834, in Norfolk Street, Strand, in very straitened cir-
cumstances. In 1839 Weddell’s portrait was presented
to the Royal Geographical Society by Mr John Brown,
the author of a work on the search for Sir John Franklin.
Captain Weddell was a fine specimen of a courageous and
thoroughly efficient British seaman.
CHAPTER XLVIII
ENDERBY AND HIS CAPTAINS: BISCOE—KEMPE—BALLENY
CHARLES ENDERBY is a name which should ever receive
honour from geographers. Though engaged in the Ant-
arctic sealing trade, his captains always had orders to
pay as close attention to geographical research and
discovery as their work permitted them, and he was well
served in this respect by the able navigators in his
employment. Mr Enderby was for ten years on the
Council of the Royal Geographical Society, and was an
old and respected friend of the present writer.
The most important Enderby voyages of discovery
were under the command of Captain John Biscoe, who,
like Weddell, was a naval officer. He left the Falkland
Islands in 1830 in a brig named the Tula, with the cutter
Lively, Captain Avery, in company, steering south, and
before the end of December he was amongst pack ice and
bergs. On December 2gth he was off the Sandwich Land
of Cook, which he was instructed to visit; but no vestige
of seal or sea elephant could be found. Biscoe, therefore,
continued his voyage. On the 21st of January, 1831,
he crossed the Antarctic Circle. By the 25th February
the Tula was in 66° 8’S. and 43°54’ W. In the morning
there was appearance of land, in the intervals of snow
squalls, with many bergs and ice fields round the ship.
The icebergs became innumerable, and there was a strong
N.E. swell. Captain Biscoe considered that he could
proceed no further with safety. The land appeared to
be like the North Foreland, the cliffs being about the
same height, probably ice cliffs resting on land. From
the fore top Captain Biscoe, with a good glass, could
trace the coast for 30 or 40 miles. He made an effort
to reach the land in a boat, but the ice was too closely
packed. On February 28th, the latitude being 66° 7’S.,
longitude 49° 6’E., high land was again sighted, with
black peaks rising above the snow. For two days an
26—2
404 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
atternpt was made to reach it. Biscoe named a clearly
seen point Cape Ann, in 65° 25’S. and 49° 18’ E. Next
day a furious gale was encountered, lasting without ~
intermission until the 8th of March. These gales were
frequent, and scurvy broke out among the crew. In
April only one man, one boy, the two mates, and Biscoe
himself were able to stand, so it was thought advisable
to shape a course for New Zealand. The newly discovered
land received the name of Enderby Land.
The Tula reached the Derwent river in Tasmania,
and luckily found the Elza, Captain Weddell, at anchor.
The veteran Antarctic navigator at once sent a boat’s
crew to moor the Tula and the sufferers from scurvy
were all sent to the hospital.
On October roth, 1831, the Twila and her consort
sailed from Tasmania, and continued their voyage of
discovery. Biscoe’s plan, in: crossing the South Pacific,
was to pass over Captain Cook’s track, and seek for
land W.S.W. of the South Shetlands. On the 15th
February, 1832, in Lat. 67° 15’S., Long. 69° 29’ W., land
was sighted at a distance of about three miles. Biscoe
named the island after Queen Adelaide. He wrote :—
It has a most imposing and beautiful appearance, having one very
high peak running up into the clouds, occasionally appearing both
above and below them. One third of the mountains, which are about
4 miles in extent from north to south, have only a thin scattering of
snow over their summits. Towards the base the other two thirds are
buried in a field of snow and ice of the most dazzling whiteness. This
bed of snow and ice is about four miles in extent, and slopes gradually
down to cliffs 10 or 12 feet high ; it is split in every direction, for at
least 2 or 300 yards from its edge inwards, and appears to form ice-
bergs, only waiting for some severe gales or other cause to break
them adrift and put them in motion.
During the following days distant high mountains
were in sight, and the Tula passed several islands. On the
tgth February a small island in 65° 20'S. and 66° 38’ W.
was more closely examined, and named Pitt Island. On
the 21st Biscoe went away in a boat, and explored a deep
inlet of the mainland. He named the highest mountain
after the king, Mount William, in 64° 45’S., and the second
highest Mount Moberly, after one of his old captains.
On the 3rd March the Twla and her cutter were safely
anchored in New Plymouth, South Shetland.
CH. XLVIIT] Biscoe—Balleny 405
The new discovery received the name of Graham
Land after the First Lord of the Admiralty. It was
an island or long promontory with a lofty mountain
range occupying its interior, extending from an unknown
distance in the Antarctic regions across the circle, and
far into the south temperate zone.
Very severe weather was encountered at the South
Shetlands, and the Zula was in great danger, but she
arrived safely at Berkeley Sound in the Falkland Islands
on April 29th, 1832, with a cargo of sea-elephant skins.
Another of Enderby’s captains named Kempe, on
board the Magpie in 1832, sighted land to the eastward
of Enderby Land, which has been named Kempe Land,
but no journal or report has been preserved.
Enderby was not discouraged by some losses, and in
1838 he determined, in conjunction with some other
merchants, to send another expedition to the south.
The captain had special instructions to push as far south
as possible in hopes of discovering land in a high southern
latitude. There were two vessels, the schooner Eliza
Scott of 154 tons, commanded by John Balleny, and the
cutter Sabrina, H. Freeman, Master. We have the
natratives of Captain Balleny, and of John McNab,
second mate of the Eliza Scott. On the 3rd December
the two little vessels anchored in Chalky Bay, at the S.W.
extremity of the middle island of New Zealand; and on
the 7th January, 1839, they proceeded on their Antarctic
voyage. Running southwards through pack ice and
amongst bergs, they had reached 68°S. by the 2nd
February. On the goth land was sighted in 66° 37’S.
and the captain soon made out three islands. Next
day Balleny stood towards the land, and made out high
perpendicular cliffs, but was prevented from a nearer
approach by the ice. The observed latitude was 66° 22’S.
In the evening of the r2th Captains Balleny and Freeman
approached the shore in the cutter’s boat. The cliffs
were perpendicular, the gullies filled with ice, and smoke
was seen to be rising from the mountain peaks. Freeman
jumped out and picked up a few stones, but there was
no beach and he was up to his waist in water. The
group consisted of five islands, three large and two small,
the highest, called Young Island, rising to a peak to which
406 §=Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
the name of Freeman was given, this being the island
on which he landed. The five islands were given the
names of the five merchants who co-operated with
Enderby in the venture—Young, Borradaile, Buckle,
Sturge, and Row. The whole group was named the
Balleny Islands.
Captain Balleny then steered westward near the
Antarctic Circle, encountering severe weather and much
ice. In the night of March 4th the two little vessels
were in a hazardous position, surrounded by icebergs ‘n
thick weather, with severe snow squalls which compelled
them to heave to. On March 2nd in 64° 58'S. and
121° 8’ E. they sighted land to the southward, the vessels
being surrounded by drift ice. The land was seen both
by Balleny and by McNab the second mate, who thought
it was not more than one mile to windward. It received
the name of Sabrina Land. The appearance of land was
again seen on March 3rd. The fixed character of the
ice to the south showed the proximity of land of con-
siderable extent.
This voyage of the Eliza Scott and Sabrina is very
remarkable. That such tiny little vessels should have
passed along that dangerous coast, amidst fogs and snow
squalls, in imminent danger of collision with bergs and
heavy drift ice on all sides, speaks volumes for the
seamanlike skill, watchfulness, and nerve of the navigators.
They must be credited with the discovery of a third part
of the coast of the southern continent.
Great credit is also due to Mr Enderby, the patriotic
promoter of the expeditions which carried out this
hazardous work. The discovery of Graham Land, of three
points of the north coast of the Antarctic continent—
Enderby Land, Kempe Land, and Sabrina Land, and of
the Balleny Islands, is due to the enterprise and perse-
verance of one who may justly take rank with the
merchant adventurers of the days of the great Queen.
CHAPTER XLIX
DUMONT D’URVILLE AND WILKES
In the year 1840 there were two exploring expeditions
in the Pacific, a French and an American, and the
commissions of both were drawing to a close. Both,
however, intended to make runs towards the Antarctic
Circle before returning home. Captain Dumont D’Urville
had two ships, the Astrolabe and the Zélée, Com. Jacquinot,
under his command. When he sailed southward from
Hobart Town on January Ist, 1840, his intention was
only to make a new exploration along the edge of the
pack ice. Icebergs were first encountered on the 16th
January, and on the rgth as many as 59 were counted
round the ships. Their perpendicular walls towered over
the masts, and the spectacle was at once grand and
terrifying. D’Urville imagined himself in the narrow
streets of a city of giants. Having threaded his way
among the icebergs, he found the newly-discovered land
only a few miles distant, covered with snow, and rising
to a height of 6000 feet. D’Urville sailed along the coast
to the westward, noticing some projecting headlands and
shallow bays, but always faced by an ice wall which
rendered all landing impossible. Some bare islets were
seen, and each ship sent a boat towards them with two
officers, MM. Duroch and Dubourget. After two hours’
hard pulling the boats reached one of the islets and the
observers landed, collected rock specimens, and hoisted
the French flag. The islet was one of a group of eight or
ten, separated from the nearest coast by rather less than
a mile.
Dumont D’Urville gave the name of Adélie to the
newly-discovered land, and Cape Découverte to a pro-
montory sighted in the morning.
For some days the French corvettes encountered a
furious gale while surrounded by icebergs, and were in
considerable danger, but the wind moderated and on
408 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Januaty 30th they came in sight of an ice cliff, varying
in height from too to 150 feet, and forming a long line
westwards. D’Urville gave it the name of the Céte Clarie.
The French expedition bade a final farewell to the
polar regions on February 1st, 1840, and returned to
Hobart Town. Important discoveries had been made,
officers and men all vieing with each other in zeal and
loyalty. It was a well conducted and successful voyage.
Dumont D’Urville had also previously surveyed part
of the South Shetlands in 1838. He passed Clarence
and Elephant Islands and, sailing down Bransfield Strait,
discovered the north end of Graham Land without
knowing it, which he named after Louis Philippe. An
island to the east was named after the Prince de Joinville.
He also saw a channel with the coast of Graham Land on
one side, and Trinity with other islands on the other, To
this he gave the name Orleans Channel.
The American expedition was commanded by Captain
Wilkes, its object being chiefly to explore the Pacific, in
a voyage of circumnavigation. Captain Wilkes concluded
it with a visit to the edge of the ice south of Australia,
following in the wake of Captain Balleny and also of
Captain Dumont D’Urville.
The American squadron consisted of the Vincennes,
Captain Wilkes, the Porpoise, Peacock, and Flying Fish
tender. The tender parted company in 48°S. and went
back. The Peacock also returned owing to severe injuries
received from the ice. The Vincennes and Porpoise
continued the voyage and on the 16th January they
were at the edge of the ice, nearly on the Antarctic Circle
and in 154° 30’ E. Here land was reported by the Porporse
“mountains seen’; ‘“‘two peaks distinctly seen, very
clear, few clouds.’”’ Wilkes saw some land himself, and
called it Ringgold’s Knoll. Land was also visible from
the Vincennes, “every appearance of land, believed to
be such by all on board.’ All this was nevertheless a
mistake, due to the deceptive appearance of ice and
clouds.
In 1850 Captain Tapsell, in a sealer called the Brisk,
sighted the Balleny Islands and then sailed west to
Long. 143° E., finding no land. It is now known that
CH.XLIX] Dumont D’Uroille and Wilkes 409
the coast trends S.E. from Adélie Land, and could
not possibly have been sighted from Wilkes’s position.
Wilkes reported having sighted land or appearance of land
3000 feet high several times, seen over the fast ice, and
he was within a few miles of a coast beyond Sabrina Land,
which he called Knox Land. He then stood to the north
and reported land ahead trending north in 64°, which he
called Termination Land, but we now know that this
does not exist.
Captain Wilkes’s theory has been proved to be quite
correct—that there is a continuous land forming a coast-
line of 2000 miles and more, and he certainly made out
the distant land on several occasions, as Balleny and
Dumont D’Urville had done before him, but his subsequent
controversies are to be deplored.
GEAR LER al.
FIRST ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES ROSS
THE great Antarctic expedition commanded by Sir
James Ross had magnetic research and not geography
for its immediate object. It originated with Colonel
Sabine, who read a paper on terrestrial magnetism at
the meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in
August, 1838, which led to a deputation being nominated
to approach the Government. The deficiency in our
knowledge of terrestrial magnetism in the southern
hemisphere, it was considered, should be supplied by
observations of magnetic direction and intensity in high
southern latitudes between the meridians of New Holland?
and Cape Horn, and Her Majesty’s Government was
urged to appoint a naval expedition expressly directed
to that object.
Lord Melbourne acceded to the request, and Sir James
Ross received his commission to command the expedition
on the 8th April, 1839. The Erebus, a bomb vessel of
370 tons, strongly built and with a capacious hold, was
selected for Sir James Ross, and the Terror, of 340 tons,
a similar vessel which had been thoroughly repaired after
her disastrous voyage with Sir George Back, was chosen
for Ross’s second in command, Commander Crozier. The
complement of each ship amounted to 64 persons.
The officers were not only thoroughly efficient; there
were among them men who were distinguished in their
profession and whose record is worthy of remembrance.
Sir James Ross was by far the most experienced Arctic
officer then living. He had passed through no less than
nine Arctic winters and seventeen navigable seasons,
was the most eminent magnetic observer next to Sabine,
an admirable collector, and an unequalled navigator.
Crozier was his old friend and messmate in the Arctic
regions, and was also a practised magnetic observer.
1 The name Australia had not then come into use.
CH. L] Ross's First Voyage All
The first Lieutenants were worthy to serve under
such men. Lieutenant Bird of the Erebus, son of the
Rev. Godfrey Bird, Rector of Little Witham, was a
distinguished Arctic officer, highly thought of by Parry
as well as by Ross. Knowing his work thoroughly he
was steady, reliable, and calm in moments of danger.
As a midshipman he had seen service at the blockade of
Brest and the battle of Algiers. Archibald M’Murdo of
the Terror, grandson of Major M’Murdo, the friend of the
poet Burns, was an officer of more than ordinary ability,
whose brother Sir Herbert was equally distinguished as
a soldier, and as the right hand of Sir Charles Napier
in Sind. Archibald served in the Blonde with Sir Edmund
Lyons in the operations against the Turks in the Morea,
and later in the Alligator under Captain Lambert in the
East Indies and New Zealand. He was promoted in 1836
for his intrepidity and skill in recovering a crew of wrecked
whalers from the clutches of the Maoris. He served in
the disastrous voyage of the Tervor with Sir George Back,
who had a very high opinion of his capacity, and he was
first Lieutenant of that ship until ill health obliged him
to return home. He afterwards commanded the Contest
on the coast of Africa, became a Rear-Admiral, and died
in December, 1875.
Of the other Lieutenants John Sibbald was a steady,
capable officer, and Wood a good surveyor. Phillips of
the Terror, a very active enthusiastic officer, was a good
seaman, and a man of ability and sound sense. He
afterwards showed those qualities in the Arctic regions
under Sir John Ross, when I knew him well.
Of the Mates, Oakley was a good observer and a useful
young officer, and Alexander Smith was well known to
Sir James Ross, having served under him in Davis Strait,
on board the Cove. Moore was a young officer endowed
with no ordinary ability, energy, and tact. He com-
manded the Pagoda afterwards, when she was sent south
to complete some of Ross’s magnetic work. In command
of the Plover he made a boat voyage to Cape Barrow; he
became a Rear Admiral, Fellow of the Royal Society,
and Governor of the Falkland Islands 1855-62. He died
in 1870.
Dr M*Cormick and Dr Robertson undertook the
412 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
geology and zoology. M*Cormick, enthusiastic, energetic,
and tireless, had been Assistant-Surgeon in the Hecla
with Sir Edward Parry. Afterwards he commanded a
boat to examine the western side of Wellington Channel
in 1852 during the Franklin search. In his old age
Dr M*Cormick published an interesting narrative of
his three polar voyages, and was quite indefatigable in
helping and advising us when we were fitting out for
the search expedition in 1850. Dr Robertson of the
Terror was equally hard working, but not so excitable
and sensitive. He was afterwards Surgeon of the Enter-
prise with Sir James Ross in the first Franklin search
expedition.
Of the Assistant-Surgeons, Sir Joseph Hooker, though
then a very young man, was already a skilled botanist.
He was a most valuable member of the expedition, and
his future eminence had some of its roots within the
Antarctic circle. His colleague Dr Lyall of the Terror,
a zealous botanist, was a scientific student of rare ability
and had a distinguished career. He was afterwards
naturalist of the Acheron, New Zealand surveying ship
from 1847 to 1852, then surgeon of the Pembroke during
the Russian war, and afterwards of the Plumper, surveying
ship in the North Pacific. He was surgeon of the Asszst-
ance in the Arctic expedition of 1852-54, and made
a valuable collection of plants in Wellington Channel.
Dr Lyall, after a very useful career, died as a Deputy
Inspector, on the 25th February, 1895.
Mr Tucker, Master of the Evebus, was a very capable and
efficient officer, afterwards Staff Commander and a useful
member of the Thames Conservancy Board. Mr Cotter
was Master of the Terror. Henry Yule, the second
Master of the Evebus, was a good surveyor and continued
his service in that capacity on the Home Survey. John
Davis, second Master of the Terror, was an officer of
much ability, a good surveyor, and an excellent artist.
He had previously served under Captain FitzRoy on
board the Beagle in Magellan’s Strait. He executed the
charts and drawings for Sir James Ross, for which he
received the special thanks of the Hydrographer. After-
wards he was employed as a surveyor in the Fox with
Sir Allen Young in 1862, and Naval Assistant to the
CH. L] Ross's First Voyage A123
Hydrographer from 1863 to 1876. His most interesting
letter to his sister in 1843 was printed in 1891. Retired
as Staff Captain in 1876, he was the author, jointly with
his son, of the Azimuth Tables. Captain Davis died on
the 30th January, 1877.
Mr Hallett, Purser of the Evebus, had previously been
with Sir James Ross in the Cove in 1836. He afterwards
served on the coast of Africa, where he died. George
Moubray, the clerk in charge of the Terror, was thought
so highly of that he received the very responsible appoint-
ment of Naval Agent and Storekeeper at Constantinople
during the Crimean war, and was afterwards Storekeeper
at Malta for some time, retiring as a Paymaster-in-Chief
with the Greenwich pension. The gunner of the Evebus
must not be left out, as he was a very exceptional
character and had very wide Arctic experience. Thomas
Abernethy, born at Peterhead in 1802, was an experienced
seaman when he joined the Fury in Parry’s third Arctic
expedition in 1824, and was very active and useful in all
the work at Fury Beach. He was with Parry again in
1827, and second mate of the Victory with the Rosses
during the Boothian expedition 1829-33. When the
boatswain of the Erebus fell overboard in a heavy sea
on the voyage out and was drowned, Abernethy and
Oakley commanded the two boats that were lowered for
his rescue. Oakley’s boat was struck by a sea which
knocked four of the crew out of her. Abernethy, whose
boat was again alongside ready to be hoisted up, imme-
diately pushed off and succeeded in saving the crew of
Oakley’s boat from their perilous position. Abernethy
was a splendid seaman. He served again with Sir James
Ross in the Enterprise, and finally with old Sir John Ross
in the Felix. He died at Peterhead on April 13th, 1860}.
With this exceptionally distinguished staff and two
well-equipped and strongly built ships, Sir James Ross
sailed from the Thames on his great enterprise on the
30th September, 1839. After visiting and exploring
Kerguelen Island, the expedition arrived at Tasmania on
August 16th, 1840. Sir John Franklin was then Governor,
1 The present writer was personally acquainted with Admiral Bird,
Lieutenant Phillips, Mr Tucker, Dr M*Cormick, Sir Joseph Flooker,
Dr Lyall, Admiral Moore, Captain Davis, and Mr Abernethy.
414. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [part u
and gave every assistance in his power. The chief thing
was the erection of an observatory for synchronous
observations. Sir John selected the site and, with
convict labour, the building, with its pillars carried
down to the bed rock, was erected in nine days. Sir
John named it Rossbank. Lieutenant Kay, R.N., was
placed in charge, with two Mates named Dayman and
Scott as assistants. Kay, who was a Fellow of the
Royal Society, had served in the Chanticleer with Captain
Foster, and in the Rainbow with Sir John Franklin.
The magnetic observations of the expedition were under
the immediate superintendence of Commander Crozier,
and were continued uninterruptedly every hour through-
out the day and night?.
Sir James Ross heard of the voyages of Dumont
D’Urville and Wilkes, and received advice from the
latter about the best places he had seen for entering the
ice. But Sir James had no intention of shaping a
course in their direction. Captain Balleny had been
much further south than either of them, having attained
a latitude of 69°S., finding an open sea. Sir James,
therefore, resolved to proceed on Balleny’s meridian,
about 170° E.
On November 13th, 1840, the expedition sailed, Sir
John Franklin remaining on board the Evebus until she
reached the mouth of the Derwent, when he returned in
his tender. Sir James Ross touched at Auckland Island
and Campbell Island, and on January 1st the Antarctic
Circle was crossed, and the warm clothing supplied by
the Admiralty was served out. Passing a great many
icebergs with a strong breeze from the N.W., the main
pack was reached on the 5th, and Sir James resolved to
put the bows of the two old sailing ships straight on to
it and force his way through. The pack is always
closest and most difficult to penetrate at the edge, and
more open inside. After about an hour’s hard bumping,
and receiving several heavy blows, the outer edge was
forced, and the inside ice was found to be much lighter
and more scattered than it appeared to be when viewed
from a distance. During the following days the ships
* Rossbank Observatory was in latitude 42° 52’ 27” S. and longitude
147° 27’ 30” E., 205 feet above the sea.
CH. L] Ross's First Voyage 415
were bored through the pack, steering south for the
supposed position of the magnetic pole.
They had been six days in the pack when, on January
roth, in the middle watch, Lieutenant Wood reported
that land was distinctly visible right ahead. It rose in
lofty peaks, but was still very distant. They were in
71° 15'S. Next day they were fairly close to the land,
the northern point of which was named Cape Adare.
Soundings were obtained in 160 fathoms. The mountains,
crowned with snowy peaks, attained a height of from
7000 to 10,000 ft. They were named the Admiralty
Range, and the peaks were called after the then Lords
of the Admiralty. The principal peak, nearly 10,000
feet high, was, however, named after Sir Edward Sabine,
who was with Ross in two Arctic voyages.
Here the variation was 44° and the dip 86°, which ac-
cording to Sir James Ross's calculation placed the magnetic
pole in 76°S. and 145° 26’ E., or about 500 miles inland!.
With some difficulty Ross, Crozier, and several officers
landed on a small island near the coast, covered with
penguins, in 71° 56'S, and 171° 7’ E., giving it the name
of Possession Island. In very bad and stormy weather
a further range of lofty mountains came in sight whose
peaks were named after friends of the Royal Society
and the British Association, while an island received the
name of Coulman, and its northern point Cape Anne,
the name of Sir James’s fiancée.
On the 27th January the ships were in sight of
another island which was named after Sir John Franklin.
The two captains with several officers went on shore in
two boats, There was a heavy surf beating on the
rocks but Ross and a few others effected a landing.
Hooker, however, fell into the sea, and was nearly
drowned before he could be hauled into the boat, more
dead than alive from the intense cold. His condition
made it necessary to return to the ship as soon as possible,
Ross having collected several specimens of rock. The
island is in 76°8’S., and is 12 miles long by 6 broad.
On the same day the ships sighted a mountain
12,400 ft. high, emitting flame and smoke in great pro-
+ Gauss’s position was 66° S. and 146° E. Scott’s observations gave
72° 51‘ S. and 156° 25’ E,
416 = Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
fusion. Sir James Ross named it Mount Erebus, and an
extinct volcano to the eastward 10,900 ft. high, Mount
Terror. A small round island, which had been in sight
all the morning, was called Beaufort Island.
Ross and his officers were astonished at the sight of
a mighty ice cliff 100 feet high, with a uniform level
summit, stretching away to the eastward from the
peninsula or island of the volcanoes. It was a bitter
disappointment, as they hoped to have gone much
further south. As the ships approached the volcanoes
two capes were recognised and named after Crozier and
Bird, Sir James Ross taking the opportunity of ex-
pressing his affectionate regard for his two old Arctic
messmates, who were giving him such invaluable help.
The bay formed by the island of volcanoes was called
after M’Murdo, the first Lieutenant of the Terror, “a
compliment that his zeal and skill well merited.” The
ice cliffs were higher than the masthead, so that little
could be seen, but some peaks were made out, rising
above the line of cliffs, and looking more distant than
they really were owing to the haze. These Ross named
the Parry mountains, after his revered old commander
with whom he had served in all but one of his Arctic
voyages. The peaks were really the tops of islands at
the back of the volcanoes, but the mistake was natural,
indeed inevitable under the circumstances.
When within three or four miles of the great ice
barrier, Sir James Ross altered course to the eastward to
ascertain its extent. Mount Erebus was then emitting
smoke and flames in great volume, affording a grand
spectacle. Good progress was made in sailing along the
ice barrier but no rent or fissure could be seen throughout
its whole extent. On the zgth, after sailing along the
barrier for a hundred miles, the ships being in 77° 47’ S., it
was still seen stretching away to the east. The soundings
showed that the outer edge of the ice was not resting on
the ground. Bad weather came on with much snow,
and the barrier was only seen at intervals as they con-
tinued their course to the east. Ross wrote of the
barrier as a “mighty and wonderful object, far beyond
anything we could have thought of or conceived.” The
furthest south of the two ships was in 78° 5’S.
yqnos 94} Woy snqel1q IA
= Ma 2 aa the 7
CH. L] Ross's First Ve oyage 417
On the 13th February Ross gave up any attempt to
go further along the barrier and resolved to steer for the
magnetic pole and seek for a harbour in which to winter.
The course was set for Franklin Island. On the r6th Mount
Erebus was again sighted, and there was a splendid view
of the whole line of coast. A great number of whales
of two kinds were visible. Upon the cape ahead of the
ships was conferred the name of Professor Gauss of
Géttingen “‘who has done more than any other philo-
sopher of the present day to advance the science of
terrestrial magnetism.”’ The range of mountains which
Ross considered to be the seat of the magnetic pole was
called after Prince Albert.
The course was now northward along the coast. Two
capes named after Captain Washington, the Secretary of
the Royal Geographical Society, and Captain Johnson,
R.N., were seen to enclose a bay which was called after
Lieutenant Wood of the Evebus!. On February 2oth the
breeze freshened to a gale and next day they were off
Cape Adare. Rounding this, the northern coast was
reached, the furthest point seen being Cape North. The
line of coast presented perpendicular ice cliffs, and no
landing was possible. The course was therefore set to
the N.W., and on the 2nd March land was seen ahead
appearing like two islands, but really peaks of one of the
Balleny Islands. On the 6th April, 1841, the Erebus and
Lerror arrived in the Derwent river, Tasmania.
+ On January 31st there was “an unaccountable decrease of variation
from 96° E, to 77° E., and then an increase of 16°. Ross formed the opinion
that they had passed one of those extraordinary magnetic points first
observed during Sir Edward Parry’s second voyage, near the eastern
entrance of Hecla and Fury Strait.” Sir James Ross, Voyage to the
Southern Seas, 1, 229.
CHAPTER LI
SECOND ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES ROSS
THE Erebus and Terror were refitting at Hobart Town
from April to July, 1841, when they proceeded to Port
Jackson. The chief object of Captain Ross was to
obtain a series of magnetic observations for comparison
with those made at Hobart Town. From Port Jackson
the expedition went to the Bay of Islands in New Zealand.
During these visits Dr Hooker had opportunities of
making collections and observations which are embodied
in his great work, the Flora Antarctica.
On November 23rd, 1841, the expedition sailed from
New Zealand, and Sir James Ross shaped a course for
Chatham Island, chiefly for magnetic purposes. After
a short visit he steered south for the main pack and
pushed boldly into the ice on the 18th December.
Christmas Day was passed closely beset in the pack,
near a chain of eleven icebergs, and in a thick fog.
On New Year’s eve they were in the same place.
This would be called an impenetrable pack. But there is
no such thing as an impenetrable pack for men like Sir
James Ross, and he had resolved to force the ships
through it. On the 9th January they were still at the
same place as on Christmas Day, with no apparent pro-
spect of moving. But Sir James still persevered. On the
20th it blew a gale of wind, and they were in the midst of
large masses of ice with a very heavy swell. No ordinary
ship would have stood the hammering from the masses of
ice for half-an-hour. The rudder of the Terror was broken
and rendered useless. When the weather moderated it
took a whole day to ship the spare rudder owing to the
gudgeons being bent. Both ships had been in imminent
danger, and for the first time Sir James Ross looked
anxious and careworn. They had been 4o days going
a hundred miles. On the zoth February they encountered
a frightful gale, the spray dashing over the ships and
CH. LI] Ross's Second Voyage 419
becoming ice as it touched the deck. Sir James would
not turn back, and on the 28th they reached a latitude
of 78° 10'S. The great ice barrier was in sight; not so
high as the part they had seen the previous year, but
more irregular.
The season was advanced and it became necessary to
give up further exploration and turn the ships’ heads in
a northerly direction. On the rst March a magnificent
range of icebergs was in sight, extending in an unbroken
chain as far as the eye could discern from the masthead.
On the 4th a furious gale was encountered and on the
12th several bergs were again seen during thick weather.
There were constant squalls of snow concealing the bergs
from view. Suddenly a large berg was seen ahead, and
quite close. The Evebus was hauled to the wind on the
port tack with the expectation of being able to weather it.
At that moment the Terror came in sight running down
upon her consort. It was impossible for her to clear
both the berg and the Evebus, so that collision was in-
evitable. The Evebus hove all aback to diminish the
violence of the shock, but the concussion was terrific
nevertheless. Bowsprit and fore-topmast were carried
away and the ships, hanging together, dashed against
each other with fearful violence. The Terror’s anchor
and cat-head were carried away, the yard-arms came in
contact at every roll, smashing the booms and boom
irons. All this time there was a heavy sea, and both
ships were drifting on the berg. The men behaved
splendidly when ordered up to loose the main topsail.
Sir James resolved to brace the yards bye, and haul the
main tack on board, sharp aback, an expedient that had
never before been resorted to in such weather. It was
three quarters of an hour before this could be done.
The ship gathered stern way, plunging her stern into the
sea and washing away the gig and quarter boats, while
her lower yard arms actually scraped the rugged face of
the berg. In a few minutes the ship reached the iceberg’s
western end, the under-tow alone preventing her from
being dashed to pieces against it. No sooner had the ship
cleared it than another iceberg was seen astern, against
which the ship was running. The space between the
bergs did not exceed three times the breadth of the ship.
27—2
420 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [part
The only chance was to pass between the bergs. This
was happily accomplished. She dashed through the
narrow channel between two perpendicular walls of ice,
and the next moment she was safe in smooth water
under their lee. As Sir James said, ‘“‘the necessity of
constant and energetic action to meet the momentarily
varying circumstances of our situation left us no time to
reflect on our imminent danger.”
Sir James Ross then shaped a direct course round
Cape Horn to the Falkland Islands before strong westerly
gales, and on April 6th the two ships sailed up Berkeley
Sound and anchored in Port Louis. Commander Crozier
and Lieutenant Bird had been promoted, and Smith
the Mate had also received his Lieutenancy. Lieutenant
M’Murdo was invalided, and Lieutenant Sibbald took
his place on board the Terror. On the 22nd June the
Carysfort, Captain Lord George Paulet, arrived, with a
large supply of provisions sent by Commodore Purvis,
as well as a new bowsprit.
The refitting of the Erebus and Terror proceeded
steadily, and by the end of July both ships were in good
order and ready for sea. During the stay of the Antarctic
Expedition at the Falkland Islands the Governor, Captain
Moody, supported by the opinion of Sir James Ross,
removed the settlement from Port Louis to Port William,
Lieutenant Sibbald was left at Port William to carry on
a system of magnetic observations upon such a plan as
to secure a satisfactory record, while the ships proceeded
to Cape Horn for synchronous observations,
On the 8th September, 1842, the Evebus and Terror
sailed from Port William, and encountered very severe
weather during their voyage towards Cape Horn. But
the day was fine when they sighted the famous promon-
tory on the 18th, passing it at a distance of a mile and a
half and anchoring off St Martin’s Cove in 55°51’ 20’S.,
67° 32’ 10" W. An observatory was set up on Hermit
Island. While the magnetic work was proceeding, Dr
Hooker made a specially interesting botanical collection.
On November 13th the expedition returned to the Falk-
land Islands, meeting the Philomel, Captain Sulivan, who
was engaged in surveying the group. The Falkland Islands
were left again on the 17th December for a third visit to
CH. LI] Ross's Second Voyage 421
the Antarctic. All hands on board had been diligently
at work; careful magnetic, meteorological, and tidal
observations being taken wherever they were.
The first iceberg was met with on December 24th in
61° S., soon afterwards the main pack came into view,
and on the 28th land was sighted which appeared to be
the northern cape of Dumont d’Urville’s Joinville Island.
An examination of part of the South Shetland Islands
was then begun.
CHAPTER LIT
THIRD ANTARCTIC VOYAGE OF SIR JAMES ROSS
Str JAMES Ross began his survey of part of the
South Shetland Islands when he reached the north-west
coast of Joinville Island of Dumont d’Urville. On
December 28th, 1842, he sighted the conical islet to which
he gave the name of Etna, then passed an enormous
glacier descending from an elevation of 1200 feet into the
ocean, where it presented a vertical cliff 100 feet high.
Near it, and evidently broken away from its face, was the
greatest aggregation of icebergs that Sir James ever
remembered to have seen collected together. Shaping
a southerly course, numerous rocky islets appeared
amongst heavy fragments of ice which completely con-
cealed them until the ships were quite close. They were
named Danger Isles, and the southernmost islet received
the name of Charles Darwin. A great number of the
largest sized black whales were seen here, and Sir James
thought that a valuable whale fishery might be estab-
lished in these localities.
A point of land supposed to be the southern point
of Joinville Island, but since found to be on a separate
island, was given the name of Commodore Purvis, com-
manding the A/fred on the Brazilian station; a remarkable
peak was called Mount Percy after the Admiral at the
Cape, and an island off Cape Purvis after Lord George
Paulet. There appeared to be a passage between Join-
ville Island and Louis Philippe Land (the northern end
of Graham Land) into Bransfield Strait. The most striking
feature in these discoveries was considered to be Mount
Haddington (7050 ft.), named after the First Lord of the
Admiralty. It is on the large island to the south, since
known as James Ross Island. The great gulf between
Graham Land and Joinville Island was called Erebus
and Terror Bay. <A very small brown islet to the south,
a quarter of a mile across, with a crater-like peak of 760 ft.
was given the name of Admiral Sir George Cockburn.
CH. LIT] Ross's Third Voyage 423
On January 6th, 1843, Captains Ross and Crozier landed
on this volcanic islet, and Dr Hooker, who was with
them, found that the flora consisted of nineteen species,
all mosses, lichens, and algae. Two out of the five mosses
were new. Cockburn Island is in 64° 12’S. and 59° 40’ W.
The inlet between James Ross Island and Seymour and
Snow Hill Islands—afterwards found to be a channel—
was named after the Admiralty; and what was thought
to be a promontory and called after Admiral Sir George
Seymour, has since been found to be an island (Seymour
Island), rendered famous in after years for its yieldof fossils.
From Seymour Island a course was shaped to the
S.S.W. on January 7th, passing along Snow Hill Island.
Upon the southern point of James Ross Island the name
of Captain Foster of the Chanticleer, Ross’s lamented old
Arctic messmate, was conferred,
On the 8th there was a dense fog, and icebergs with
much loose ice surrounded the ships, which were secured
to the land ice until the 12th, when Sir James resolved
to endeavour to trace this land ice to the S.E. But the
ships were quite enclosed, and it was accordingly deter-
mined to force them through the pack, a long and
arduous as well as a hazardous struggle, for they were
sustaining severe pressure. On the 4th February how-
ever, in latitude 64° S., the vessels were clear of the
ice with which they had been battling for nearly six
weeks. The hope was that on reaching the meridian of
40°, where Weddell had penetrated so far to the southward,
Ross and Crozier would also find the sea so clear as to
admit of their reaching a high southern latitude.
On the r4th February Weddell’s track was crossed in
65° 13’ S., but there was a dense pack. Dumont d’Urville
found the same conditions and not so far south. In the
following days there were snow-falls, and a heavy sea,
yet on March rst the Erebus and Terror once more crossed
the Circle and entered the Antarctic regions, accompanied
by several whales, a sooty albatross, blue and white petrels,
and Cape pigeons. On the 4th they passed the highest
latitude attained by Bellingshausen and crossed the 70th
parallel. Next day they were in 71° ro’ S. and ran into
the pack for thirty miles, but the young ice was so strong
and the season so late that it became necessary to work
424 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTu
out again, after reaching 71° 30'S. A gale sprang up
with a heavy snow-fall, the sea was running very high,
and the thick weather caused continual apprehension of
collision with one of the numerous bergs. It was a
fearful night, and next day there was not the least miti-
gation of the force of the gale. Sir James expressed his
admiration at the seamanlike manner in which Captain
Crozier and the officers of the Terror kept their station
in the face of such difficulties, and at the vigilance,
activity, and cool courage of Commander Bird.
The third Antarctic voyage of Sir James Ross was
now drawing to a close, and he resolved to shape his course
for the Cape of Good Hope. On the 4th April, 1843, the
two ships anchored in Simon’s Bay, close to the Win-
chester, flag-ship of Admiral Percy. There was not a
single individual in either ship on the sick list. Refitting,
refreshing the crew, and comparing instruments occupied
the time until the end of the month, and on April 30th
the voyage home was commenced. The ships arrived at
Woolwich and were paid off in September, 1843.
In the conduct of these Antarctic voyages by Sir
James Ross the first thing that strikes one is his extra-
ordinary skill in ice navigation, his fearlessness and
resolution. Very few captains would have persevered,
in the face of such imminent dangers, in the long struggle
with the pack for forty days; but Sir James was deter-
mined to examine the further end of the great ice barrier,
and nothing could stop him. In the collision close to
the icebergs, under circumstances of appalling danger,
this great commander showed a seamanlike skill, a pre-
sence of mind, and a quickness of decision such as has
never been surpassed. These rare gifts and his unfailing
nerve saved the ship. His next great quality was his
perseverance in conducting the magnetic observations,
his unceasing care in taking every opportunity to secure
advantageous positions for observing, and in obtaining
accuracy. He took the same care as regards meteoro-
logical observations, deep sea soundings, and tidal ob-
servations!. He was most attentive in promoting the
1 Sir Joseph Hooker told me that Sir James was not only an accurate
observer, but also a good collector, taking the deepest interest in the
geological and biological researches.
CH. LI] Ross's Third Voyage 425
welfare and health of his officers and men, and in all his
work he certainly was assisted by an exceptionally
diligent and accomplished staff.
Referring to the uninterrupted observations that were
taken during the course of the expedition he himself said
“they will elucidate several points of importance and
interest in science, while they present others for eluci-
dation and afford a basis of comparison, should a sound
mode of prosecuting inquiry be adopted.”’
Ross’s geographical discoveries were of the utmost
importance and interest. They threw a completely new
light on the economy of the southern continent, and
pointed the way to future discoveries in the far south},
At the request of Sir James Ross Admiral Percy,
Commander in Chief on the Cape Station, chartered a
merchant vessel called the Pagoda with the object of
taking a series of magnetic observations in the direction
of Enderby Land. The command was given to Mr Moore,
who had served in the Terror. He was accompanied by
Captain Henry Clerk of the Royal Artillery, a scientific
officer, son of Sir George Clerk, Bart., M.P., of Penicuick,
and by Dr Dickson, Assistant-Surgeon of the Winchester,
flag-ship at the Cape. The duty was satisfactorily per-
formed during 1844-45, and an account of the voyage was
afterwards written by Dr Dickson in the United Service
Magazine for June and July 1850.
* The following treat of Ross’s Third Antarctic Voyage :—
(a) A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic
Regions 1839-43 (2 vols. 8vo.), by Sir James Clark Ross.
(6) Voyages of Discovery in the Arctic and Antarctic Seas (2 vols., large
8vo.), by R. McCormick.
(c) Captain J. E. Davis: Letter to his sister describing events of Sir
James Ross’s voyage, and especially the iceberg collision. Printed for
the Royal Societies Antarctic Expedition.
(2) Ms letter from C. J. Sullivan, armourer of H.M.S. Evebus, describing
Antarctic scenery, the iceberg collision, and other events.
CHAPTER DTIl
ANTARCTIC OCEANOGRAPHY
AFTER the days of Sir James Ross various causes led
to the development of what was almost a new science,
that of Oceanography. It included not only measurement
of depths, but also of the temperatures at different
depths, the study of plankton or surface ocean life, and of
life in the depths. I remember what a revolution it
caused in one’s ideas. When I went to sea we were
taught that there was enormous pressure at great depths,
sufficient to prevent the existence of life, for in descending
the sea water got heavier and heavier under pressure.
It was held that at 2000 fathoms a man would bear on
his body a weight equal to 20 locomotive engines each
with a goods train loaded with pig iron. The answer to
this is that water is almost incompressible, so that the
density of sea water at 2000 fathoms is scarcely appre-
ciably increased. Facts send theories to the four winds.
Sir James Ross was himself much impressed with the
importance of deep sea sounding with serial temperatures,
and he was the first to adopt the method of sounding by
time with weight and marked line, the principal conditions
to ensure accuracy being rapidity of descent and regularity.
The advance of the science depended on the invention
of improved apparatus and instruments until they were
brought to perfection.
The project of laying cables across the Atlantic gave
the first impetus to these improvements. Brooke’s!
sounding-apparatus was on the principle of disengaging
weights. In 1856 the American Captain Derryman took
twenty-four deep sea soundings with Brooke’s apparatus
on a great circle from St John’s to Valentia. In July,
1857, Lieutenant Dayman on board H.M.S. Cyclops was
ordered to carry a line of soundings from Valentia to
+ A pupil of Captain Maury, the great American hydrographer.
CH. LIII] Antarctic Oceanography 427
Trinity Bay, using an apparatus which was a modification
of that invented by Brooke. Thirty-four soundings were
taken. They were singularly uniform, 1700 to 2400
fathoms, and showed a light brown muddy sediment,
and minute hard particles, animal organisms (Foramini-
fera) with skeletons composed of carbonate of lime. In
the autumn of 1858 Lieutenant Dayman, in H.M.S.
Gorgon, took another line of soundings from the S.E.
angle of Newfoundland to Fayal, and from Fayal to the
Channel. In the following year, in H.M.S. Firebrand, he
took another series across the Bay of Biscay and along
the coast of Portugal to Malta. Later, Captain Shortland,
in H.M.S. Hydra, took deep sea soundings from Malta
to Bombay.
Great energy continued to be shown, and in 1860
the Bulldog was commissioned by Sir Leopold M’Clintock,
to take a line of soundings from the Faroes by Greenland
to Labrador. The sounding machine was an adaptation
of Ross’s deep-sea clam with Brooke’s principle of
disengaging weights. The Bulldog brought up specimens
from 600 to 2000 fathorns.
Hitherto oceanographic operations had been chiefly
directed to the practical purpose of preparing for the
laying of cables on the bed of the ocean, but the obtaining
of specimens at great depths caused science to step in.
Dr Carpenter and Dr Wyville Thomson were anxious to
go into the whole question of the physical and biological
conditions of the sea bottom, and in the autumn of 1868
the Admiralty lent the Lightning gunboat, in which the
two savants worked for two stormy months between
Scotland and the Faroes. They found that there was
abundance of animal life at the bottom of the sea, and
that the fauna was in many respects peculiar. The results|
were considered so interesting that the Admiralty placed
the Porcupime gunboat at the disposal of Dr Carpenter,
Dr Wyville Thomson, and Mr Gwyn Jeffreys for two suc-
cessive seasons. They then succeeded in dredging to a
depth of 2435 fathoms and found that even at that depth
the invertebrates were fairly represented. An invention
to protect the thermometer bulbs from being irregularly
compressed under great pressure made the deep sea tem-
perature determinations fairly trustworthy. Dr Wyville
428 <Ayrctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
Thonison found that “public interest was now fairly
aroused in the new field of research.”
A circumnavigating expedition was then suggested to
traverse the great ocean basins, and prepare sections show-
ing their physical and biological conditions. Mr Lowe,
who was then Chancellor of the Exchequer, approved the
plan, and the Challenger, a corvette of 2306 tons and
1234 h.-p., was selected for the service. All but two of
her guns were taken out and she was fitted out entirely
for deep sea sounding and dredging operations. The
Challenger sailed in January, 1873, under the command
of Captain Nares, with Dr Wyville Thomson as head of the
scientific staff. There were four Lieutenants, Maclear, ,
Aldrich, Bromley, and Bethell, and five scientific assistants
to Dr Wyville Thomson, Buchanan (Physicist) Moseley,
John Murray, Willemoes-Siihn, and Wild. The ship was
fitted with all the latest inventions that twenty years of
study and experience had produced.
After having thrown much light on the depths and the
fauna of tropical oceans, the Challenger approached the
Antarctic regions early in 1873. She met with dense
fogs in 65° 42'S. on February roth, but Captain Nares
continued a southward course and the vessel crossed the
Antarctic Circle in 78° 22’ E. She then followed the edge
of the pack for 150 miles eastward to within 15 miles of
Wilkes’s supposed Termination Land. The soundings
gave depths of from 1250 to 1975 fathoms. Westward
of 80° E. very few icebergs were met with, but eastward
of 92° E. they were very numerous. It was thought
that there was no land for a considerable distance between
70° and 80° E. The depths showed that the continental
shelf had not been reached on those meridians. This
particular region to the east of Kempe Land has not
since been visited and it offers a very interesting, and
possibly a successful route for future explorers.
The science of oceanography has progressed consider-
ably since the days of the Challenger; great improvements
have been made in the varied apparatus connected with
it, and the work has become at once more easy and more
accurate. Steam power is indispensable, rendering reliable
deep sea soundings possible and ice navigation much
easier.
CH. LIT] Antarctic Oceanography 429
Some years after the return of the Challenger, the
Germans despatched the Valdivia on a deep sea sounding
expedition. She left the Cape in November, 1898, and
reached the drift ice in 56° 45'S. Further progress was
stopped in 64°15’S. and 54° 20’E. A depth of 3000
fathoms was obtained, and specimens of gneiss, granite,
and schist, as well as a mass of red sandstone, were brought
up, probably dropped by icebergs. The ocean floor
between Kerguelen Island and Enderby Land was strongly
folded, a depth of 1300 fathoms alternating with great
abysses of 2000 and 3000 fathoms. Many lines of soundings
are still needed from the known areas near the southern
extremities of America, Africa, Australia, and New Zea-
land to the southern continental shelves, as well as along
the edges of the shelves themselves. Great progress,
however, has been made in this respect within the last
fifteen years, large collections have been obtained, and
the Antarctic ocean depths have been sounded in several
directions with important physical and biological results.
CHAPTER Lay
REVIVAL OF ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION
AFTER the return of Sir James Ross a quarter of a
century elapsed and the Antarctic regions remained
neglected. While Sherard Osborn and I were working
for the despatch of an Arctic expedition, we were equally
resolved to use every effort for the revival of Antarctic
research and to see Sir James Ross’s splendid discoveries
continued by a worthy successor. From 1872 Osborn
was collecting data for an Antarctic expedition, but my
accomplished and energetic old messmate died in 1875.
Still I had others to help, Sir Vesey Hamilton, Sir Joseph
Hooker, who was always encouraging, and above all
Captain Davis, who served with distinction under Sir
James Ross as surveyor and artist. On February 26th,
1869, Captain Davis read a paper on antarctic discovery,
proposing Sabrina Land, discovered by Balleny, as a
station for the transit of Venus. He also presented the
Geographical Society with a large map of the Antarctic
regions, showing the tracks of explorers. Then on
March 1gth, 1870, Sir Vesey Hamilton read a critical
paper on a book purporting to be the voyages of an
American, Captain Morrell, showing that the statements
were impossible, and the whole story apocryphal and of
no use to us for reference or in any other way. These
papers aroused some interest, and in September, 1885, the
British Association appointed an Antarctic Committee
which in 1887 reported in favour of further exploration.
Sir Graham Berry, the representative of the Colony
of Victoria in London, took a great interest in our efforts,
and induced the colonial authorities to promise a vote
of £5000 if Her Majesty’s Government would give another
£5000. I saw Sir Graham on November 30th, 1887, and
arranged to have private representations made to the
Ministers concerned. But on January 3rd, 1888, Her
Majesty’s Government refused to jom the Colony of
cH.Liv] Revival of Antarctic Exploration A431
Victoria in granting £5000, enclosing a characteristic
report from the Board of Trade to the effect that there
were no trade returns from the Antarctic regions. Then
Oscar Dickson, the munificent Swedish promoter of polar
voyages, offered to give the £5000 to the Victoria Govern-
ment which our Government had refused, but then the
Colony drew back. During this time we were warmly
supported by Baron Miller of the Botanical Gardens at
Melbourne, by Captain Pascoe, R.N., and by other geo-
graphers in that colony. From Baron Miiller especially I
received most enthusiastic letters, Sir Erasmus Ommanney
actively supported and raised the Antarctic question at
the Berne Congress, while Captain Davis continued to
work steadily in the good cause until his death.
In 1892 I heard from Captain David Gray that it
was intended to send three Scotch whalers to the south,
in consequence of the numbers of whales mentioned in
the narrative of Sir James Ross. Accordingly the Active,
Balaena, and Diana were despatched, but the result was
disappointing. They never even crossed the Antarctic
Circle. The Active, in South Shetland waters, found that
what was supposed to be Joinville Island really consisted
of two islands, one much larger than the other; the
smaller one, which the Acfzve sailed round, was named
Dundee Island. That was all: the voyage was not
pecuniarily successful and was not repeated,
The Norwegian, Captain Larsen of the Jason, was much
more enterprising. He landed on Sir George Seymour’s
Island in 1892, and found several pieces of fossil wood
and some fossil bivalves, a most important discovery.
His voyage was considered so promising in Norway that
in the following year he was sent again in the Jason with
two other vessels in company, the Hertha and Castor.
On the 18th November, 1893, Larsen again landed on
Sir George Seymour’s Island to make collections, and
then proceeded down the east coast of Graham Land,
the best side for an advance south. In 65° 44’ S. he named
a lofty peak Mount Jason. He observed several deep
fjords, and the ice terraces resting on the slope of the
mountains with their bases on the sea bottom. They
are similar to the ice-foot up Smith Sound, but on a
gigantic scale. On the 6th December Larsen had reached
432 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PaRTU
68° zo’ S. and could have gone further, had he not re-
membered that his chief business was sealing. On the
gth December he discovered an island quite snow-covered,
which he named Veiro. In 65° 20’ S. Robertson Island
was discovered, and two other islands—one of them the
cone of a volcano—were named Christensen (after the
well-known builder at Sandefjord who fitted out the
Jason) and Lindenberg Sukkertop. Captain Larsen went
over the ice on ski to Christensen Island, and from it
he saw five volcanic islets which were named Oceana,
Castor, Hertha, Jason, and Larsen. Captain Eversen of
the Hertha made his way to the west side of Graham
Land and sighted Adelaide Island, in November, 1893.
He went as far south as 69° 10’ S.
When Captain Larsen returned to Sandefjord he came
to see me at Laurvik on July 23rd, 1894, and presented
me with some of the fossil wood found on Sir George
Seymour’s Island. Sir Archibald Geikie, to whom I
afterwards gave them, was inclined to think that it was
drift-wood, because it showed perforations. Larsen’s two
voyages, in their way so important, were certainly a great
help to our efforts by interesting geographers, and it
was with no small degree of pleasure that I presented
Captain Larsen with one of the Geographical Society’s
awards—that bequeathed by Sir George Back.
When I was elected President of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society in 1893, I resolved that no efforts should
be spared to secure the despatch of a properly equipped
Antarctic expedition: the main object being to make
further discoveries in connection with the great Antarctic
continent which had received the name of Antarctica,
No sooner was this known than enterprises sprang up in
all directions—Norwegian, Belgian, Scottish, German,
Swedish, and French. Without any concerted action,
except as regards the Germans, none of these touched
Antarctica, but roved as free lances, so that it will be
quite convenient to deal with them separately before
treating of the preparations for the Antarctic expedition
of the Royal and Royal Geographical Societies.
CTLAPT ERR. EV
PRIVATE EXPEDITIONS—BORCHGREVINK—GERLACHE—
NORDENSKIOLD—BRUCE—DRYGALSKI—CHARCOT—
FILCHNER
BORCHGREVINK
IT was in 1894 that Mr Svend Foyn, the great Nor-
wegian shipowner, sent a vessel southwards to determine
whether the despatch of whaling ships to Antarctic seas
would be remunerative. She was commanded by Captain
Christensen, and he reached Cape Adare and Robertson
Bay of Sir James Ross. The voyage was not repeated,
but there was a volunteer on board named Carstens
Borchgrevink who, in 1898, induced Sir George Newnes
to supply the funds for an expedition under his command.
Borchgrevink bought a Norwegian sealer named the
Pollux, of 521 tons, built in Arendal, Captain Jensen
being master. Re-named the Southern Cross she left
Hobart r9th December, 1898, and arrived at Cape Adare
17th February, 1899, and the landing party was put on shore
in Robertson Bay, with a house taken out in pieces.
Here the party wintered, it being arranged that the ship
should return for them next summer. Nothing of any
importance was possible in the way of sledge travelling
from Robertson Bay. But there was a very able staff—
Mr Colbeck, R.N.R., the magnetic observer and surveyor,
Mr Bernacchi the physicist, Hanson (who died during the
winter and was buried at Cape Adare) and Hugh Evans
the biologists. All the staff did their work admirably,
and the results were published by the authorities of the
British Museum in 1902. When the ship returned she
followed the track of Sir James Ross’s ships. Borch-
grevink landed on the barrier and then returned to New
Zealand.
DE GERLACHE
The Belgian Expedition was well supported by
patriotic subscribers. Captain de Gerlache was chosen to
command it, and in February, 1896, there were sufficient
MI, 28
434 <Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTU
funds to enable him to buy a suitable ship in Norway—
the Patria of 241 tons, built at Svelvig near Drammen
in 1884. She was very thoroughly refitted and strength-
ened at Sandefjord, and on June rgth I spent the day
there and was very favourably impressed by the efficiency
and ability of the Belgian Commander and above all
by his modesty. Lieutenant Lecointe was his second in
command, Ar¢towski went as geologist, Racovitza as
naturalist, Danco as magnetic observer, and Dr Cook,
who had been with Peary in Whale Sound, as surgeon.
Roald Amundsen was 2nd Lieutenant. The Patria was
re-named the Belgica.
The expedition of de Gerlache approached the South
Shetlands at the western end of the group by Smith
and Low Islands to the Gulf of Hughes, which is an
expansion of the Orleans Channel discovered by Dumont
d’Urville. The Belgica then proceeded down a channel
with the north-west coast of Graham Land on one side,
and four large islands on the other which de Gerlache
named Liége, Brabant, Gand, and Anvers. The channel,
which was named after de Gerlache, led into the Pacific
Ocean, The scenery on both sides was magnificent.
Captain de Gerlache gave as many opportunities of
landing as possible, and M. Arctowski, the geologist, was
specially eager to examine the rocks and the glaciation.
At his first landing he found eruptive rocks of great density,
of a deep green colour. He next landed on Trinity or
Palmer Island. The rocks were erratic, from a moraine,
and consisted of granite, and also of numerous ancient
eruptive rocks. The latitude was 63° 57’ S. The landings
of Arctowski and his messmates were, in fact, very
numerous as the Belgica steamed down Gerlache Channel,
with interesting glacial and geological results ; the officers
meanwhile making surveys of the coast. Arctowski
thought that the channel and the islands were once
covered with a vast glacier. He found some evidence
that the glaciers were now receding.
On leaving the channel the Belgica ran south along
the western coast of Graham Land, passing many flat-
topped icebergs. The Circle was crossed and the Antarctic
regions entered on the 14th February, 1898. De Gerlache
tried to approach the Alexander Island of Bellingshausen,
CH. LV] De Gerlache’s Voyage 435
but was stopped by the pack. It was, however, sighted.
The coast beyond seemed to turn to the east. The
Alexander Island glaciers were found not to reach the
sea, coalescing in a gigantic ice-foot or terrace.
De Gerlache then left the coast of Graham Land and
the Belgica was steered westward into the Pacific on
February 24th, being in 69° 30'S. Working through the
closely-packed ice the ship had reached a latitude of
71° 31'S. on the zoth March, in longitude 85° 16’ W.
The young ice was forming fast, and it became evident
that they would have to winter in the pack. During that
dreary winter the ship drifted from 85° to go° W., the
Peter Island of Bellingshausen being in 92°. As summer
approached it was necessary to cut a canal to the open
water, but at length the Belgica was clear of the ice on
March 14th, 1899.
__ Over the area that the vessel drifted during the winter
the depth averaged about 270 fathoms. This was a
continental shelf, showing that the land was at no great
distance to the south. At the edge of the shelf to the
north there was an abrupt descent to 800 fathoms.
This discovery of the edge of the continental shelf
in the Pacific Ocean is important, combined with the
discoveries of Bellingshausen. But all the work done by
this expedition was well done and has increased our
knowledge of the geology and glaciation of Graham
Land. Captain de Gerlache conducted the expedition
with ability and success. He has since done very useful
Arctic work in the same ship, with the Duc d’Orléans.
M. Ar¢towski’s excellent paper on the exploration of
Antarctic lands during the voyage of the Belgica was
included in the Royal Geographical Society’s Antarctic
Manual.
NORDENSKIOLD
The Swedish expedition, which was equipped at
Gothenburg in 1901, was intended to investigate the
geology of the south-west part of the South Shetlands,
where fossils were first made known by Captain Larsen,
1 Quinze Mois dans l’Antarctique, par le Commandant de Gerlache
(Hachette, 1902), 106 illustrations and chart, pp. 284.
“Exploration of AntarcticLands,” by Henryk Arctowski, inthe Antarctic
Manual.
28—2
436 8=©Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
and ‘to complete and rectify the topography. The
command was given to Dr Otto Nordenskidld, an eminent
Swedish geologist with Arctic experience, and a nephew
of Baron Nordenskidld. With him was associated another
distinguished geologist, Gunnar Andersson, who was to join
after the first year. The ship, named the Antarctic, was
commanded by Anton Larsen, who as already stated had
done splendid work on the east coast of Graham Land.
With him was Lieutenant Duse of the Norwegian army
as cartographer, and Lieutenant Sobral of the Argentine
Navy joined at Buenos Aires as magnetic and meteoro-
logical observer.
Leaving Gothenburg in October, 1go1, the Antarcive,
after putting into Falmouth, reached the Falkland Islands
on the 1st January, 1902. Proceeding to the South
Shetland Islands it was decided that Nordenskidld should
winter as near the fossil-bearing island of Sir George
Seymour as possible. A sheltered position was selected
on the neighbouring Snow Hill Island, where the house was
set up and provisions, instruments, and other necessaries
landed. The party consisted of Nordenskidld, Ekelof the
surgeon, the Argentine Lieutenant Sobral, a very useful
person named Bodman, and two seamen. May and June
were months of storm, but the rest of the winter was
safely passed, and in October Nordenskidld, who had ob-
- tained some dogs at the Falkland Islands, started on an
expedition to the south. He was just a month away, but
did not get as far south as the Antarctic Circle. Later
in November he made two journeys to Seymour Island to
collect fossils, with very important results.
The Antarctic returned to the Falkland Islands,
whither Dr Gunnar Andersson had arrived. Taking him
on board, Captain Larsen spent some time in exploring
South Georgia, and then proceeded to Tierra del Fuego,
entering the Beagle Channel. The needs of the Antarctic
were supplied at the Argentine settlement of Ushuaia
while Andersson explored the interior. The course was
then south, passing Deception and Trinity Islands, and
surveying the Orleans Channel. The ultimate destination
was Nordenskiéld’s winter quarters, to take all on board
and return. But Dr Andersson wanted to undertake
some exploring, and was landed at Hope Bay, at the
CH. LV] Otto Nordenskiold’s Voyage 437
extreme north-west end of Graham Land, in order to
reach Nordenskidld by land. His companions were
Lieutenant Duse and a seaman. Insuperable obstacles
intervened to prevent the completion of their journey,
and they returned to Hope Bay, where they built a stone
hut. The abundance of penguins and seals prevented
any danger from starvation or scurvy, and Dr Andersson
found that the locality was rich in fossils.
The Antarctic had left in order to embark the party
with Nordenskidld, but she was beset off Joinville Island,
drifted away, and underwent great pressure in the pack.
This continued, her ribs were broken and she began to
sink, but there was fortunately time to get all the boats
out and fill them with provisions and stores before the
ship foundered off Paulet Island. The shipwrecked crew
pulled to the shore and Captain Larsen established
winter quarters and built a stone house. In the spring
Dr Andersson and his party succeeded in reaching Norden-
skidld’s winter quarters, and a little later Captain Larsen
manned a boat and went to Hope Bay only to find
Andersson and his comrades gone. He then went on to
Nordenskidéld’s winter quarters, where he found both
parties all well.
When the Nordenskidld expedition did not return
after the first winter, grave anxiety was felt. The
Argentine Government ordered their naval attaché in
London, a young officer named Julio Irizar, to obtain
all the necessary equipment, and then to proceed to
Buenos Aires and take command of a relief ship. He
came to me for advice, and the able Antarctic Secretary
of the Royal Geographical Society, Mr Cyril Longhurst,
gave him all possible assistance with regard to equipment.
After visiting Norway for furs and other gear, he sailed
for Buenos Aires and took command of the Uruguay
relief ship. On the 8th November, 1903, he arrived off
Snow Hill Island, and took all the Swedes on board with
their valuable collections. Thence proceeding to Paulet
Island he ultimately found the shipwrecked crew, and all
were taken safely home, Captain Irizar conducted his
relief expedition with remarkable skill and ability from
start to finish.
The geographical results of the Nordenskidld ex-
438 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
pedition were the surveys which completed our knowledge
of the intricate topography of the south-western part of
the South Shetlands, correcting former work of Ross and
d’Urville, and discovering much that was new. The
geological results were of great importance, for they
point to the connection of Graham Land with South
America at a recent geological period. Graham Land and
most of the islands belong to the region of folding and of
Andine eruptives. The rocks are plutonic and, according
to Nordenskidld, belong or are closely related to a peculiar
type of eruptives characteristic of the American cordilleras
throughout their length. Ross Island and Vega Island
are volcanic, composed of basalt and lava flows. Paulet
Island also contains cones of eruption.
In the fossils of Hope Bay, Dr Andersson discovered
a very rich Jurassic flora, consisting of conifers, mare’s
tails, and ferns in profusion. In abundance of species
Hope Bay far surpasses all Jurassic floras hitherto known |
in South America. They are fresh-water deposits. The
Seymour and Snow Hill formations are Cretaceous. There
are many ammonites, cephalopods, bivalves, and trunks
of fossil wood in the sandstone; there are also birds, and
a mammal belonging to the Tertiary period. On Cockburn
Island there was a curious conglomerate of pecten shells,
formed on basaltic tuff in Pliocene times.
In Jurassic times the land must have been covered
with rich vegetation in a mild and uniform climate. At
Hope Bay the fresh-water lake flora has close affinity
with the contemporaneous floras of India and Europe.
After the Cretaceous surface was lifted above the sea
level, mountain ranges were formed. The South Shetland
Islands were once a clearly-marked mountain range
parallel to that of Graham Land, and the Gerlache
channel was a longitudinal valley.
During the Miocene period there were violent erup-
tions causing a great accumulation of volcanic tuff. The
fauna of this period was closely allied to the Miocene
fauna of Patagonia. On Seymour Island five new genera
of fossil penguins and the large cetacean, Zeuglodon, were
found in the Tertiary beds; also the impressions of large
ani very distinct leaves of an Araucaria, a beech tree, and
erns.
CH. LV| Bruce's Voyage 439
Patagonia was connected by land with Graham Land,
and spread out to a great width. At that time the warm
coast current from Brazil would have flowed down to
the coasts of Antarctica, causing that region to be much
warmer than it is now. These geological facts give rise
to alluring and not altogether impossible conjectures.
The results of the Nordenskiéld expedition were of great
value, serving to connect, as they do, the Andes with the
Antarctic mountain range of Graham Land, and perhaps
with a continuous range further south. The expedition
was without comparison the most important of all the
private enterprises which have undertaken discoveries in
the far south in recent years, except of course the great
expeditions of Captain Scott!,
BRUCE
The expedition under Mr Bruce was for a very short
time south of the Antarctic circle, most of its two years
and a half duration being devoted to scientific investiga-
tions in two islands of the South Orkneys.
Mr Bruce was a natural history student. In that
capacity, in 1893, he made a voyage to the south in one
of the whalers, the Balaena, Captain Robertson. From
1894-96 he was at the meteorological station on the
summit of Ben Nevis, and in 1896-97 he served under
Jackson during his last winter in Franz Josef Land.
Having received a promise of support from Mr James and
Major Andrew Coats, wealthy manufacturers at Paisley,
he went to Norway and bought an old vessel of 400 tons
called the Hecla, which required much repair. Captain
Robertson was master of the ship, which was re-named the
Scotia, and there was a scientific staff. The main object
appears to have been deep sea sounding. The Scotia sailed
on the znd November 1902, and in the first year she crossed
the Antarctic Circle, went south as far as 70° 25’, and
then returned to winter at the South Orkneys.
The two islands of the South Orkneys, called Laurie
and Coronation, were discovered by a sealing captain
named Powell in the Dove in 1821. They had been
* Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the Ice of the South Pole, by Dr Otto
Nordenskiéld and Dr Gunnar Andersson, 1905.
On the Geology of Graham Land, by Dr Gunnar Andersson. (Uppsala,
1906.)
440 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTu
visited by Weddell, who named them, by Dumont
d’Urville in 1838, and by Larsen in 1893. Bruce and his
staff took meteorological, magnetic, and tidal observa-
tions, and made biological and geological researches and
collections. Silurian fossils were found, and some evidence
was obtained to show that the Patagonian coast once
extended to these islands and beyond them.
In the second season the Scotia crossed the Antarctic
Circle in 32° W. on February 27th, 1904, finding a depth
of 2630 fathoms. The ship was now in King George’s
Sea of Weddell. Icebergs of immense size were met with,
far too large to have come off the mountain slopes. They
pointed to a vast glacial formation analogous to Ross’s
ice barrier. On the 3rd March, when in 72° 18’ S, and
17° 59’ W. with a depth of 1131 fathoms, a line of ice
cliffs 100 to 180 feet high was sighted, but could not be
approached nearer than two miles. These cliffs were
probably resting on land which is a continuation of the
coast of Antarctica from Enderby Land. The line of
cliffs was traced for 150 miles, and a sounding on the
continental shelf gave 159 fathoms. Mr Bruce named
the ice cliffs Coats Land. On the goth March, the
Scotia was in 74° 1’ S, and 22° W. and on the 14th she
was headed north. The soundings obtained were from
2000 to 2600 fathoms. On the 27th the Antarctic Circle
was again crossed, the Scotia having been 28 days south
of it. After a second winter at the South Orkneys the
expedition returned.
DRYGALSKI
German scientific students had long taken a great
interest in Antarctic research, and Dr Neumeyer, a native
of Frankenthal near Worms, did more than anyone else
out of England to arouse an interest in the subject. He
had been in charge of the observatory at Melbourne from
1858 to 1862, and afterwards became chief of the See-
warte at Hamburg. When the German Antarctic ex-
pedition was decided upon and funds were raised, it was
wisely resolved to build a vessel specially for the service,
to be named the Gauss after the great magnetician of
Géttingen. She was built at Kiel of the best dry oak
and pitch pine. Her gross tonnage was 650, her length
CH. LV| Drygalski’s Voyage 441
165 ft., breadth 37 ft., depth 22 ft., speed when laden
5 knots. She could carry 600 tons of coal, and was well
adapted for Antarctic work.
Professor Neumeyer was of opinion that, to secure
adequate results, the command should be given to a
naval officer. But eventually Dr Erik von Drygalski
was selected, a physicist who had studied glacial action
in Greenland and was the author of a work on the subject!.
An accomplished scientific staff accompanied him, and
Captain Hans Ruser was Captain of the ship and navigator.
The Gauss left Kerguelen Island on the 31st January,
1902, entering the ice in February, and working for the
Termination Land of Wilkes, which was not found.
Land was sighted, but the Gauss wintered in the pack
outside the Antarctic Circle in 66° 13’ S. All the scientific
staff were diligently at work, and valuable series of
meteorological and magnetic observations were taken by
Dr Friedrich Bidlingmaier of Potsdam. The other mem-
bers of the scientific staff were Dr Ernst Van Hoffen,
Dr Hans Gazert, and Dr Emil Philippi. In the summer
a travelling party reached the land, distant about 50
miles. A conical mountain consisting of volcanic rock
was discovered and named Gaussberg, and collections
were made. A line of ice cliffs was seen, extending from
89° to 94° E., which was named Kénig Wilhelm IT Land.
The place where the Gauss wintered was over a com-
paratively shallow bank, within the continental shelf. The
ship was freed on February 8th, 1903, and reached Cape
Town on June gth.
It is to be regretted that Dr Drygalski did not go
south on a meridian nearer to Kempe Land, when it is
probable that he would have been more successful from
a geographical point of view. Antarctic work was given up
by the Germans, and the Gauss was sold to the Canadian
Government?,
CHARCOT
Dr Charcot, son of the celebrated physician, an
energetic and gifted Frenchman, endowed with a peculiar
charm of manner, undertook to continue the work on
* Die gevidde Formation der Eisgeit (Berlin, 1887), and Gvénlands
Gletscher und Inlandeis.
2 Zum Kontinent des eisigen siidens, von Erik von Drygalski (Berlin, rgo4).
442 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [ParTu
the coast of Graham Land. He sailed for the south in
a little vessel called the Francais in 1903 and passed a
winter at Wandel Island, afterwards cruising for some
distance along the coast of Graham Land. Returning
to France he resolved to construct and equip a small
steamer specially for Antarctic work. She was built at
St Malo in 1908 and named the Pourquoi Pas (450 h.-p.,
length 131 ft., beam 30 ft.), and Charcot sailed in her
from Havre August 15th, 1908. From Punta Arenas he
sailed south, and examined the coasts of Adelaide Island
of Biscoe, landing on one of a group of small islets on the
15th January, 1909. The winter was passed at Petermann
Island. In the summer of 1909—10910 he followed the edge
of the pack as far as 125° W., sighting Bellingshausen’s
Peter Island on January 16th, rgto. He had previously
sighted the Alexander I Land of Bellingshausen on board
the Francais at a distance of 60 miles, on January r1th-
13th, 1905. After again sighting it, he shaped a course into
the South Pacific, when south of 70°, calling a distant
appearance of land Charcot Land after his father. He
returned to Rouen June 5th, rgro.
These two voyages comprise a useful. piece of polar
work, Dr Charcot has won the admiration of all who
know him, and all true Britons feel a regard for the
gallant Frenchman when they remember his camaraderie
and affection for Captain Scott.
FILCHNER
In rorxz Filchner, an officer in the Prussian army,
came forward to raise funds for an Antarctic expedition,
announcing that there was much talk of theories, but
that he was going to cut the Gordian knot by going to
see. Having raised the necessary funds, Filchner’s plan
was to explore the Weddell Quadrant to its apex. He
bought a Norwegian whaler built at Arendal and named
the Njord, and took with him a scientific staff, Dr Koenig
of Vienna being the naturalist, and Dr Heinrich Seelheim
the geographer. The master of the ship was Captain
Jorgensen. The expedition left Hamburg in May, IgiI,
with all the equipment for long inland journeys, includine
three motors.
Filchner went the right way to work. There was no
CH. LV] fulchuer's Voyage 443
impenetrable pack for him. He put the ship’s stem
straight at it, somewhere near Weddell’s furthest, and
forced her through. After battling with the pack over.
120 miles the ship came out into open water, and land
was sighted in 76° 35’ extending to 79°. There was an
ice barrier to the westward. Unfortunately the ship was
carried away to the north before she could be properly
secured, and she drifted about in the ice-cumbered sea
during the winter. The new land was named after the
late venerable Regent of Bavaria. Captain Jorgensen
died before the ship returned to Buenos Aires.
Creek 2 ER evi
PREPARATIONS FOR THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC
EXPEDITION
In May 1893 I was elected President of the Royal
Geographical Society, and resolved that an Antarctic
expedition should be despatched, preferably by Govern-
ment, as the encouragement of maritime enterprise,
especially in a school so favourable to the acquisition of
valuable experience as the polar regions, has always been
my special aim. I found that Dr Murray of the Challenger
agreed with me that the expedition should be under
naval control, and he consented to open the campaign
by reading a paper at a meeting of the Royal Geographical
Society on November 27th, 1893.
It was a great meeting, reminiscent of the splendid
opening of the Arctic campaign by Sherard Osborn, and
Sir John Murray’s address was eloquent and convincing.
Apart from the main object, the duties of an expedition,
as outlined by Dr Murray, would be :—
To determine the nature and extent of the Antarctic Continent
To penetrate into the interior.
To ascertain the depth and nature of the ice-cap.
To ae ike the character of the underlying rocks and their
OSSUS.
To obtain as complete a series as possible of magnetic and
meteorological observations.
To observe the depths and temperatures of the ocean.
To take pendulum observations.
To sound, trawl, and dredge.
He added that observations such as the above were
especially desirable ‘‘for the more definite determination
of the distribution of the land and water of our planet,
for the solution of many problems concerning the ice age,
for the better determination of the internal constitution
and superficial form of the earth, and for a more complete
knowledge of the laws which govern the motions of the
atmosphere and hydrosphere.”’
The approval of the great meeting was unanimous
POPS CN Gi tat ce et
CH. LV1| The Societies E-xpedition 445
Sir Joseph Hooker, the Duke of Argyll, and other eminent
men of science and naval officers expressing themselves
strongly in favour of the project. A dash to the Pole was
not advocated, but rather a steady, continuous, and
systematic exploration of the antarctic region.
Our efforts to induce the Government to undertake
an expedition failed, and need not be dwelt upon here.
The Admiralty, however, offered to lend instruments, and
later, thanks to the exertions of Admiral Sir Anthony
Hoskins, there was liberality in giving leave, on full pay,
to officers and men.
Articles in magazines had to be published, lectures to
be delivered, circulars to be sent out, and the desperately
uphill work of raising funds for a private expedition
undertaken. In December, 1895, I proposed that the
expedition should be undertaken by the Royal Geo-
graphical Society. There was some opposition and delay,
but at length, on April rath, 1897, the R.G.S. Council
agreed to subscribe and raise funds. As the Royal
Society is the scientific adviser of the Government,
that eminent body was asked to unite with the Royal
Geographical Society, and its President and Council
consented on February 24th, 1898. The Council of the
Geographical Society consented to a grant of £5000 for
the expedition, on June 20th of that year,
By that time I had collected only £14,000 when on
March 24th, 1899, Mr Longstaff asked me if £25,000 would
enable the expedition to start. I assured him that it
would, on a small scale, and he at once sent a cheque.
This was an example of princely munificence which
entitles its generous donor to take rank with the merchant
adventurers of the days of Elizabeth, For similar
patriotic munificence Sir Felix Booth received a baronetcy ;
Oscar Dickson received a barony. Longstaff received the
admiration and gratitude of his countrymen, and a very
honourable niche in polar history. On June 22nd, 1899,
the First Lord of the Treasury promised a grant, and
the Treasury afterwards announced that this would
amount to £40,000 on condition that an equal sum was
raised privately. We then had only £37,000, but the
R.G.S. Council at once granted an additional £3000
to make up the required sum.
446 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
I considered it necessary, as did Sir William White,
that a wooden ship should be specially built for the
service. In consultation with Captain Creak, R.N., C.B.,
Superintendent of compasses at the Admiralty, I found
that he also thought it necessary from the point of view
of magnetic observations. Sir William White advised me
to secure the services of Mr W. C. Smith, C.B., of the
Controller’s Department at the Admiralty, to prepare the
designs and specifications. Mr Smith very kindly under-
took the duty, with the permission of Admiral Sir Arthur
Wilson, the Controller. A Ship Committee was appointed
on April roth, 1899, meeting first on the 26th},
It was decided that the ship should be of wood, and
that the lines of the old Discovery of the 1876 expedition
should be followed as closely as possible. It was then
considered whether the new ship should have a midship
section, like the Fram, of a peg-top character to facilitate
her rising to ice pressure, but as there is not the same
likelihood of severe nips in the south, it was thought
better to have an ordinary section, with a view to the
probability of heavy weather conditions. A complement
of 43 souls was to be arranged for, with accommodation
equal in all respects to a man-of-war of the same size,
and there was to be stowage for two years’ provisions
and 335 tons of coal. The ship was to be of 400 I.H.P.
and fitted with a two-bladed lifting screw. Mr Smith
adopted a special plan for shipping and unshipping the
rudder.
That the ship should be absolutely free from magnetic
qualities was impossible, owing to the engine and boilers.
But in order that there should be as little as possible,
steel and iron were excluded from a space having a
radius of 30 feet from where the magnetic observatory
was placed.
Instead of the usual square stern, a round form of
stern was adopted, which gave better protection to the
1 The Committee consisted of the following persons :—
Sir Clements Markham, Pres. Rear-Admiral Sir George Egerton,
Admiral Sir Leopold M’Clintock. Sir John Murray, ,
Vice-Admiral Pelham Aldrich. Admiral Sir George Nares.
Captain Ettrick Creak, R.N. Admiral Sir Albert Markham.
Admiral Sir R. Vesey Hamilton, Rear-Admiral Sir William Wharton.
Admiral Sir Anthony Hoskins, Captain Field (Hydrographer).
CH. LVI] The Societies Expedition 447
rudder and screw and was much more satisfactory in
heavy seas. It gave the helmsman nearly dry quarters.
The length of the ship on the water line was finally
fixed at 179 ft., the breadth 34 ft., the depth amidships
18 ft. She was to be barque-rigged and of 735 gross and
483 registered tonnage. The framing throughout was of
oak, the keel of elm. The boats were a sailing cutter
(which was not taken south), four 26-foot whalers, and
two Norwegian prams.
The Dundee Shipbuilders Company undertook her
construction for £34,050 and £10,322 for the engines, and
on March 16th, rgoo, the keel was laid. On March atst,
tgor, Lady Markham launched the ship at Dundee, and
gave her the name of the Discovery. She left Dundee on
the 3rd June, was in the East India Docks for 55 days
loading, and on August Ist she arrived at Stokes Bay}.
I had selected the fittest commander in my own mind
in 1887, when I was on board the Achve in the West
Indies, the guest of my cousin Commodore Markham, then
in command of the training squadron, the other ships
being the Rover, Volage, and Calypso. When we were at
St Kitts, March 1st, 1887, the lieutenants got up a service
cutter race. The boats were to be at anchor with awnings
spread. They were to get under way and make sail,
beat up to windward for a mile, round a buoy, down
mast and sail, pull down to the starting point, anchor
and spread awning again. The race tried several qualities.
For a long time it was a close thing between two mid-
shipmen, Robert Falcon Scott and Hyde Parker. How-
ever, Scott won the race and on the 5th he dined with us.
He was then 18, and I was much struck by his intelligence,
information, and the charm of hismanner. My experience
taught me that it would be years before an expedition
would be ready, and I believed that Scott was the destined
man to command it. At Vigo we were thrown together
again, when my young friend was torpedo lieutenant of
the Empress of India, and I was more than ever impressed
by his evident vocation for such a command. When the
1 The house flag of the Discovery was made at Dundee :—the cross of
St George at the hoist, the fly swallow-tailed, party per fesse, argent and
azure (for ice and sea), and bearing the globe of the Royal Geographical
Society. Bordure argent and azure.
448 <Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
time’ came for the selection I consulted Captain (now
Admiral Sir George) Egerton, an Arctic officer with a wide
knowledge of men and much experience in the service.
He sent me several names, but Scott’s was first, and he
had excellent testimonials. As a torpedo lieutenant he
had gone through a special course of training in surveying,
and he wrote the whole section on mining survey in the
Torpedo Manual, and suggested all the instruments to be
used. He had a thorough knowledge of the principles of
surveying and of surveying instruments, as well as of
electricity and magnetism. Seven of the ships in which
he had served were masted, and frequently under sail.
Scott was now just the right age for a leader of a
polar expedition, and admirably adapted for such a
responsible post from every point of view. He was
recommended very strongly by Captain Egerton, by his
Admiral, and also by the First Lord and the First Sea
Lord of the Admiralty. Yet there was long and tedious
opposition from Joint Committees, Special Committees,
Sub-Committees and all the complicated apparatus which
our junction with the Royal Society involved, harder to
force a way through than the most impenetrable of ice-
packs. But we got through and I had the pleasure of
signing Scott’s appointment on the gth June, 1900. On
the 30th he was promoted to the rank of Commander,
the numerous committees were gradually got rid of, and
Scott took command.
Albert Armitage, a Worcester boy and a very efficient
P. and O. officer, who had served throughout Jackson’s
expedition and was with Jackson on his long sledge
journey round Alexandra Land, was selected by me as
Navigator and in charge of magnetic observations at sea,
and was approved by Captain Scott.
Some years before, on June 14th, 1892, I was in a river
steamer going down to Greenhithe to see the boat-race be-
tween the Conway and Worcester cadets. I saw on board a
young Conway cadet who bore a remarkable resemblance
to Wyatt Rawson, the gallant Arctic officer in the expedi-
tion of 1875-76. The boy, Charles Royds, was his nephew,
and I found that he was most anxious to get into the
navy. He succeeded in July, 1892. His career was meri-
torious and he won golden opinions from his captains. He
CH. LVI] The Societies Expedition 449
was the first to volunteer, and no better man could be
found as First Lieutenant. He also took charge of the
meteorology. He was a good musician, both vocal and
instrumental, a thorough seaman, and a good all round
man. Scott wrote of him that he was a first-rate worker,
an excellent officer, popular with the men, and the right
man in the right place as First Lieutenant.
Michael Barne was Scott’s special choice. The
younger son of Colonel and Lady Constance Barne of
Sotterley in Suffolk, and great-grandson of Admiral Sir
George Seymour, he was born in 1877. He was always
ready to help any one, full of good humour, the most
unselfish of mortals, and entirely to be trusted in any
position of responsibility. He had charge of all the deep
sea apparatus and performed the duty right well.
The Engineer Lieutenant, Reginald Skelton, was an
officer of great ability. In addition to his very arduous
work in the engine room, he had charge of the dark room,
stored all the negatives of interest, assisted with the
pendulum observations, and, with Dr Wilson, did all the
bird-skinning.
No more Lieutenants could be obtained from the
Admiralty, so Captain Scott had to turn elsewhere and
accepted Ernest Shackleton as the junior executive. He
had been in the merchant service since 1890, and was
very energetic and zealous. I got him made a Sub-
Lieutenant in the Naval Reserve.
Dr Koettlitz, the surgeon, had served in Jackson's
expedition.. Dr Edward Wilson, of Gonville and Caius
College, Cambridge, also surgeon, was the vertebrate zoolo-
gist. He had quite the keenest intellect of any one on
board, and possessed great artistic talent, with a marvellous
capacity for work. The special scientific staff consisted
of Mr Hodgson, the invertebrate zoologist, Curator of the
Plymouth Museum; Mr Ferrar, avery able young geologist,
a graduate of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge; and Mr
Bernacchi the physicist, who had previously been in the
Southern Cross Antarctic expedition.
The Admiralty was liberal as regards volunteers,
allowing 22 petty officers, able seamen, and stokers to
join, and two marines, all excellent men. Indeed the
whole ship’s company exclusive of the officers was naval
M.1, 29
450 <Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
except Clark, the cook’s mate and laboratory attendant,
and Weller, who was in charge of the dogs.
A colossal amount of work and responsibility fell upon
the shoulders of Captain Scott. Fortunately we had, in
the person of Mr Cyril Longhurst, an admirable hard
working and conscientious secretary, though he was then
very young. Close attention was given to the supply of
provisions, as one of the most important considerations.
The food for the sledge travellers was mainly pemmican.
It used to be made at Clarence Yard of the very best
quality, but the art was lost. Scott had to fall back
upon the very inferior article made at Chicago, and a
better kind manufactured by Beauvais at Copenhagen.
He himself visited the Beauvais factory, and ultimately
took 500 lb. of American and 1500 lb. of Beauvais’ pem-
mican. Extreme care was taken in the examination of
the preserved meats, soups, vegetables, and fruits. Dr
Collingridge, medical officer for the city of London, ap-
pointed Mr Spadaccini for this duty, and 10,250 lb. in
1542 packages of other provisions were accepted, and
231 Ib. rejected. But Captain Scott was deeply impressed
with the urgency of supplying fresh meat to his people
whenever it was possible.
Our dockyards had also lost the tradition of the
clothing, sledge equipments, and sledges, which had been
brought almost to perfection as supplied to the Franklin
search expeditions. Scott had to turn to Norway for
these things, and he was a good deal guided by Armitage,
whose experience was the most recent, though he saw
to the matter himself in Norway. The peltry, reindeer
sleeping-bags, 4 bales of Lapland grass, and 70 pairs of
ski (7 ft. 11 in.) were supplied from this source, as well
as nine g ft. sledges of Nansen’s pattern with broad ski
runners, five of 74 ft., and five iron shod and fastened to
be used for work in winter quarters}.
Scott thought that it might be useful to have a captive
balloon, whence to reconnoitre and obtain more extensive
1 The sledge flags were of the same pattern as in the Arctic expedition
of 1875-6. The cross of St George at the hoist to denote that, whatever
family the bearer may belong to, he is first and foremost an Englishman.
The fly is divided per fess with colours of the arms of the officer, undivided
if one colour, with the crest or principal charge in the arms, swallow-tailed,
with a border or fringe of the colours of the arms.
CH. LVI] The Societies Expedition A5I
views, and the idea was strongly supported by Sir Joseph
Hooker. Accordingly the necessary gear was provided, and
an officer and two men went to Aldershot for instruction.
The balloon was of the army pattern, and the gas was
taken in sixty heavy tubes which were stowed on deck.
There were also dynamos, for electric lighting. When the
steam-driven dynamos were not at work, an iron-sailed
windmill could be fitted, driving the dynamo at its base
and thus supplying the accumulators with electric current.
Most of the instruments were lent by the Admiralty—
astronomical, magnetic, meteorological, pendulum, and
seismograph, as well as sounding gear with all the newest
inventions, and dredging nets.
Baron Richthofen suggested to me that there should
be synchronous observations at as many other observa-
tories as possible. Captain Creak fully concurred and, in
concert with him, I wrote to the observatories at Kew,
Falmouth, Potsdam, Bombay, Mauritius, Melbourne, and
Christ Church (N.Z.), also making arrangements with the
Argentine Government for Staten Island, and for observa-
tions at Kerguelen Island, and with the Gauss. The
object was to obtain a series of synoptic charts which
would allow of the variations in the magnetic conditions
of the whole earth being traced in detail during a definite
period, and so provide the necessary basis from which
alone the fundamental principles of terrestrial magnetism
can be more closely approached, The observing stations to
take part in this international co-operation were distributed
over the globe with a uniformity never before attained.
The observations were of two classes: (1) of the three
elements at intervals of an hour on certain terminal days,
so as to obtain a comprehensive view of the diurnal
variations of terrestrial magnetism, (2) of the three
elements during one specified hour on each term day, to
trace the course of individual disturbances. The Dzs-
covery, the Gauss, and all the observatories were supplied
with identical forms for term days and term hours;
declination, horizontal force, vertical force. The mag-
netic observations were the most carefully planned and
completely thought out of all the branches of scientific
work carried on by the expedition.
There was a complete supply of meteorological instru-
29—2
452 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
ments under the able management of Lieutenant Royds,
a most careful aud accurate observer and recorder, and
the observations were two-hourly, taken by the officers
of the watch. Special instruments were taken out for
use on shore including spirit thermometers graduated as
low as — 90° Fahr., and a Dines pressure anemometer. A
photographic spectrometer was to be used for observing
the auroras.
The most important question to be decided was the
direction the expedition should take. To consider it with
care and understanding we divided the regions within the
Antarctic Circle into four quadrants—the Victoria Quad-
rant from go° E. to 180°, the Ross Quadrant from 180° E.
to go° W., the Weddell Quadrant from go° W. to 0°, and
the Enderby Quadrant from 0° to 90° E. We knew from
Captain Cook’s conclusion, and he was always right, that
there was an extensive continent round the south pole,
and that the coast line came furthest north to the south
of Australia and the Cape, and receded furthest south in
the King George IV Sea of Weddell and the Pacific. The
correctness of Captain Cook’s view as regards the northern
extension was proved by the discoveries of Balleny,
Biscoe, and Kempe and confirmed, as regards Balleny’s
discoveries, by Dumont d’Urville and Wilkes. Apparently,
in most parts of this coast, access would be impossible
owing to the lofty ice cliffs. Moreover, merely sighting
ice cliffs at a distance is of no use. The great discoveries
of Sir James Ross offered far better opportunities of
landing. I felt that the chief point should be the finding
of the /and of Antarctica, not the ice cap which conceals
everything. The land would be found on coasts facing
east, the east coast of Victoria Land, and east coast of
Graham Land; the ice cliffs occur mainly on northern
and western-facing coasts.
The main object of the expedition, then, would be to
explore this Antarctic continent by land, to ascertain its
physical features, and above all to discover the character
of its rocks, and to find fossils throwing light on its
geological history. We therefore decided that the Discovery
should follow in the wake of Sir James Ross, and winter
on the Victorian coast. I was anxious that everything
else should be left to the discretion of Captain Scott.
CH. LVI] The Societies Expedition 453
The instructions were drafted in January rgor. The
first paragraph stated the objects to be discovery and ex-
ploration. Importance was also attached to a magnetic
survey and to meteorological, oceanographic, geological,
biological, and physical investigations and researches.
After paragraphs dealing with the relations with a chief
of the scientific stafi—who, perhaps fortunately, did not
go out, for there could have been no fitter chief of the
scientific staff than Scott himself—particular attention
was called to the discovery of new coast lines, of the
depth and nature of the ice cap, of the nature of the
mountain ranges, and of the underlying fossiliferous
rocks. Co-operation with the German expedition was
enjoined whenever possible. Attention was drawn to the
region to the east of the Great Barrier, which was entirely
unknown, and an effort was to be made to discover land
in the Ross Quadrant. Equal importance was attached to
an examination of the Barrier, of the volcanic region, and
to journeys to the west and south. Discretion to winter
with the ship was left to Captain Scott. All mention of
the south pole as an objective was carefully avoided.
I planned an Antarctic Manual on the lines of the
Arctic Manuals prepared for the expedition of 1875-76,
securing the services of Mr G. Murray as editor. It proved
very useful, the first part containing instructions and
information by leading men of science, and the second
part being the narratives of Biscoe, Balleny, Dumont
d’Urville, and Wilkes, with papers on polar travelling by
Sir Leopold M’Clintock and on the exploration of Antarctic
lands by Arctowski.
In July rgor the great work of fitting out the expedition
was fast approaching completion. The Geographical Club
gave the officers a farewell dinner at Greenwich on the 3rd.
There were many toasts, and Captain Scott did a very
graceful thing in proposing the health of our Secretary,
Mr Longhurst, ‘with whom,” he said, “he had worked
so pleasantly for nearly a year, and whose services had
been so valuable to the expedition.”” On the 16th the
Bishop of London visited the Discovery, held service and
delivered a very impressive address to officers and men},
1 The text of the Bishop’s address was “Behold how good and how
pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity” (Psalm cxxxiii. 1),
454 <dyretic and Antarctic Exploration [partu
He presented the books for divine service, and a prayer
which he had written for daily use.
On August 5th, 1901, when the Discovery was at Cowes,
the King and Queen went on board, and his Majesty
made a charming speech to the men. Then the good
ship started on her mission. No finer set of men ever
left these shores, nor were men ever led by a finer
captain.
CHAPTER LVII
THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION
First Year.
LYTTELTON, New Zealand, was selected for the head-
quarters of the expedition in the southern hemisphere.
It was a long voyage thither and there was natural
anxiety respecting the behaviour of the new ship. As
time went on, however, Captain Scott became more and
more satisfied with her seaworthy qualities. She proved
wonderfully stiff and, as her sail area was small, it was
rarely necessary to shorten sail, even in the most violent
gales. She was wonderfully free of water on the upper
deck, and the peculiar rounded shape of her stern gave
additional buoyancy to the after part and caused her to
rise more quickly to the seas. One day, driving before
a very heavy gale, the ship made 223 knots in the
24 hours.
In 51° S. and 131° E. a very interesting magnetic area
was reached, where there appeared to be a curious incon-
sistency in the distribution of magnetic force to the north
of the magnetic pole. Captain Scott, therefore, resolved
to proceed south for some distance to explore this area
more effectively. On November 15th the 6oth parallel
was crossed, and next day the first ice was seen. Soon
loose pack ice was all round the ship. They were within
200 miles of Adélie Land in 62° 50’ S. when the ship’s
head was reluctantly turned again to the north. The
soundings at the furthest south were 1750, then 2300 and
2500 fathoms. Scott noticed and was much interested in
the abundance and variety of bird life, most of the birds
being familiar to those who have rounded the Horn.
On the 22nd Macquarie Island was reached, and the first
penguin rookery was visited. On the 30th November
they arrived at Lyttelton and the ship was docked.
After a thorough refit, the receipt of more and supple-
mentary provisions, and the enjoyment of much genuine
456 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [partu
hospitality, the Discovery was again ready for sea on the
21st December. Besides the dogs, there were 45 sheep
on deck. A short service of farewell was held by the
Bishop of Christchurch on the mess deck, and the voyage
was continued.
The first iceberg was sighted in 65° 30’ S. on the
and January, 1902, and by evening as many as seventeen
could be counted. On the 3rd the Antarctic Circle was
crossed. Soundings were taken in 2040 fathoms. Soon
afterwards the pack was entered, and they forced their way
through grinding floes, taking advantage of every favour-
able lead when the ice loosened. Seals and penguins were
plentiful on the pack, and very tame, for the only dangers
they knew were in the sea. On the 8th a strong water
sky was reported, and soon they were in a clear open sea,
after only five days in the pack. There was a well-defined
edge to the pack, which indicated the presence of southerly
winds at this season. There must have been heavier
obstruction than was met with by Sir James Koss, for
he got through, in bluffi-bowed sailing ships, in four days.
Far to the south the high mountain peaks of Victoria
Land were visible. Scott anchored in Robertson Bay,
which is formed by the long peninsula of Cape Adare, but
next day the anchor was weighed and the southward
course continued,
It is very difficult to write an abstract of this voyage,
for the perils of ice navigation, the lovely scenery in fine
weather, and the gallant struggles against the ice helped
by gales of wind and tides, are so delightfully described
by Captain Scott that condensation seems impossible. A
visit to the land, south of Cape Washington, satisfied Scott
that there were possible winter quarters in a bay which
he named Granite Harbour from the huge granite boulders
on the beach. By 8a.m.on January 21st the Discovery
was in the middle of M’Murdo Sound, with fine views of
the lofty mountains and of Mounts Erebus and Terror.
A landing was effected on the north side of Cape Crozier,
and Scott, with Dr Wilson and Royds, climbed to a height
of 1350 ft., whence they obtained a glorious view of Ross's
great ice barrier. For the first time this extraordinary
formation was seen from above.
Captain Scott then proceeded to make a closer exami-
ea
Adélie Penguins
Emperor Penguin with chick
CH. LVIT] The Societies Expedition 457
nation and survey, with soundings, of the barrier ice-cliffs.
Sir James Ross, with sailing ships and with bad weather,
was unable to do this thoroughly. The work was done
with great care, the height of the cliffs, which attained
280 ft. in the highest part, was measured at intervals,
photographs were taken, and frequent soundings, the
depth varying from 350 to 400 fathoms. It was found
that their course throughout had been south of the position
of the barrier in Ross’s time, and that they had sailed
continuously over sea which in his day had been covered
with a solid ice sheet. On January 29th they were east-
ward of the extreme position reached by Sir James in 1842.
Passing a deep bay in the barrier Scott pushed still further
to the eastward; and on the 30th new land was sighted.
Soundings varied from 88 to 265 fathoms. Most of the
surrounding icebergs were aground, young ice was formed,
and Scott resolved to shape a westward course on February
Ist. The coast-line was now clearly seen for many miles,
with sharp peaks rising to 2000 and 3000 feet, the bare
rock appearing in a few places. The new discovery was
a country of considerable altitude and extent, and of
great importance as fixing the limit of the great ice barrier.
Captain Scott then steered for the inlet he had seen
when standing to the east, and found that the ice cliffs
were only 20 feet high, and in one place not higher than
the ship’s bulwarks. Here he anchored and made fast.
There were great numbers of seals on the sea-ice. Armitage
and Bernacchi, with a light sledge equipment, marched
up the ice valley to the south.
On February 4th preparations were commenced for a
balloon ascent, in one of the army captive balloons for
lifting a single observer. Scott himself ascended to 800
feet, from which height the nature of the barrier surface
could be well seen as a series of long undulations running
east and west, each wave occupying a space of two or
three miles. Shackleton made the next ascent with a
camera, and took some photographs, and in the evening
Armitage returned, after having crossed and examined
several of the undulations. At this place a quantity of
seal meat was obtained.
The Discovery was then taken under sail along the
barrier cliffs and was in M’Murdo Sound again on
458 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
February 8th, where an excellent position for winter
quarters was selected, with a view to a good starting-
point for travelling parties. On one side was Mount
Erebus and the lower hills ending in an abrupt point—
Cape Armitage—on the other the lofty mountains of the
Victoria range. The ship was to be the home, and the
large hut was erected on shore, with two small huts for
magnetic instruments, consisting of a wooden framework
covered with sheets of asbestos. The kennels for the
dogs were arranged on the hill side, below the huts.
The selected place was at the southern extreme of a long
tongue of land jutting out from the slopes of Mount
Erebus. The hills on it formed a semicircle, the hut
being on its western extreme which was called Hut Point.
Behind, the hills rose to 500 ft., and to the north was a
fine mass called Castle Rock.
There were ski races and football, and also limited
sledge journeys, which discovered that the land of the
volcanoes was, as Ross suspected, an island; that there
were three small volcanic islets further south (named
Black, Brown, and White), that the ice barrier came up
to the foot of the mountains, and that the great Victoria
range extended far to the south.
A journey was planned to Cape Crozier to be led by
the Captain himself, but an accident to his knee while
on ski prevented him from going, and Royds took com-
mand, with Skelton, Koettlitz, Barne, and eight men,
divided into two teams, and each assisted by four dogs.
Experience in sledge travelling was of course wholly
wanting and had to be acquired. They started on March
4th.
Eight (Wild, Weller, Heald, Plumley, Quartley, Evans,
Hare, and Vince) were sent back on the gth under Lieut.
Barne. On the 11th they left their tent and walked onward,
thinking they were close to the ship. A blizzard came
on and they found themselves on a steep slope, could
see nothing, but tried to keep close together. Suddenly
Hare disappeared, then Evans went. Barne and Quartley
left the rest to search for Evans. Then they suddenly
found themselves on the edge of a precipice. Vince shot
past Wild, and went over the edge. With the greatest
difficulty Wild, Weller, Heald, and Plumley climbed back,
CH. Ly!1] The Societies Expedition 459
reached some rocks, and ultimately groped their way to
the ship.
Armitage was at once despatched with a relief party
and a sledge laden with warm clothing and medical
comforts, and fortunately not in vain. They came upon
Lieut. Barne with two men, and learnt that when Barne
left the rest in search of Evans, he found himself flying
down an icy slope at a furious pace until he was stopped
by soft snow. Within a few feet of him was Evans, then
Quartley came hurtling down. The soft snow saved all
three, for they were on the brink of the precipice over
which poor Vince had been hurled.
All hope of finding young Hare, a lad of r8 who had
been shipped at Lyttelton, had been given up. But on
March 13th, a solitary figure was seen staggering towards
the ship. It was Hare, exhausted and famished, but
free from frost bites. He had been buried in the snow
for thirty-six hours without food. His preservation was
little short of miraculous. Of Vince’s fate, however,
there could be no doubt, though his body was never found.
He was a fine young seaman, very popular, always
obliging and cheerful. A cross, firmly fixed, was erected
to his memory. Royds and his companions returned
some days afterwards.
The explorers now entered upon a very severe
Antarctic winter in 77° 52’ S, All the scientific observers
were soon steadily at work, and occupations were found
for officers and men alike. Every Tuesday, after dinner,
there was a debate in the ward-room on a given subject.
The South Polar Times came out periodically, edited by
Shackleton, and most beautifully illustrated by Dr Wilson.
Some of the men, as well as officers, contributed. The
men acted the drama of the ‘Ticket-of-Leave Man” in
the large hut, with Barne as stage manager.
Captain Scott, throughout the winter, was diligently
studying the problems connected with sledge travelling.
In many respects Arctic sledging conditions differ from
those of the Antarctic regions. The cold in the spring
and summer is very much more severe in the south, where
the thermometer often falls below — 60° Fahr. On the
other hand the southern traveller escapes the misery of
water on the floes, which renders travelling in an Arctic
460 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PART
summer so very arduous. Another striking difference is
that while the Arctic traveller usually travels over sea
ice, often hindered by ranges of hummocks, the Antarctic
explorer does most of his work over land ice. The land ice
is the most formidable, not only from the deep furrows
ploughed by the wind, but also from the dangerous
chasms and crevasses. Scott was impressed with the
necessity of attention to the minutest details in studying
the art of Antarctic sledge travelling.
The sledges were built at Christiania. Their great fault
was in being too narrow, causing them to capsize more
readily, it being necessary to pile the load much higher.
They had five pairs of uprights and cross bars. The width
of the sledges was only 17 inches, the runners 3? inches
wide; two sledges were 12 ft. long, six 11 ft., and three
7ft.1 The best width of runner-surface depends on the
nature of the snow, and can only be decided after sufficient
experience. The Danes have an excellent plan of attach-
ing a ski-runner of walrus-hide in dealing with soft snow.
Scott conceived the idea, having to deal with fewer
men, of dividing the sledging crews into units of three,
each unit having its own tent and equipment complete.
The great advantage of this plan is that, when advisable,
a party can be split up into threes, or three can be
detached from it. Each article was, therefore, designed
for the requirements of three men. The tents were bell-
shaped and made of the lightest green Willesden canvas,
spread on five bamboo poles 7 ft. long and united at the
top. They were thus 5 ft. 6 in. high, and 6 ft. in diameter
on the floor, with a skirting edge on which to pile snow;
their weight with the floor cloth was 30 lb. Scott con-
sidered the sleeping bags of the greatest importance.
They were made on board of reindeer skin, some for one
man, but most of them to contain three men, which is a
ereat advantage as regards weight. The fur was inside,
and there was a flap to be drawn over the occupants and
made fast. Their weight was 40lb. Seven of M’Clin-
tock’s sleeping bags only weighed 42 lb. but there was
also a wolf or buffalo robe weighing 40 lb.
1 M’Clintock’s sledges were 9 ft. and 11 ft. long, 3 ft, 2in. wide, 113
inches high, with 6 uprights and 6 cross bars, the runners were of }-inch
iron, 3 inches wide and slightly convex. All were lashed with strips of
hide, put on warm and wet, so that they shrank and made all tight.
CH. LVII] The Societies Expedition 461
Scott’s arrangements for diet while travelling were
adopted after careful study and much thought. Experts
place our ordinary food under three headings—the
nitrogenous food supplied by meats, the fats, and the
carbohydrates or farinaceous foods. Supposing all to be
water-free, the allowance he adopted was 29 ounces per
man, 25 being the allowance in the army on war footing.
For polar travelling a much larger allowance is necessary.
Water cannot be entirely excluded, though it is a dead
and useless addition to the weights. Ordinary cooked
meat contains 54 per cent. of moisture. This moisture in
food was reduced to a minimum, yet it increased the
29 ounces of actual food to about 35 ounces?. Our ration
in the Arctic Regions was 42 ounces per man per day.
We could not do without x lb. of pemmican, and we
also included lime-juice 4 ounce, tobacco $ ounce, and
32 ounces (¢ of a gill) of rum. Fanaticism has deprived
Antarctic travellers of the latter most comforting and
useful part of the ration. On the whole the pemmican
allowance might well have been increased, by omitting
plasmon and cheese.
The manufacture of the best pemmican is a lost art.
Scott obtained most of his from Beauvais of Copenhagen.
It contained 20 per cent. of water, but that I sent out in the
Morning made by the Bovril Company was better. But
the substantial dish with the Discovery travelling parties
was a mixture of pemmican, bacon, and other ingredients,
forming a thick soup which they called “hoosh.”’
Scott adopted the cooking apparatus invented and
used by Nansen, made of aluminium for lightness. It
takes as long to reduce ice to a liquid state at very low
temperatures as it does to boil the water, so that double
the quantity of fuel is needed. Boiling water was made
from snow in twelve minutes. The “Primus” lamp of
Nansen’s pattern was also adopted. Paraffin oil was used
for fuel. Each tin contained a gallon, weighed ro lb., and
was the allowance for three men for ten days.
The constant weights for two sledges were 568% Ib.
1 The ration adopted by Scott was as follows in ounces per day :—
Biscuit 12-0, oatmeal 1-5, pemmican 7-6, bacon and pea-flour 2-6, plasmon
2-0, cheese 2:0, chocolate 1-1, cocoa 0-7, sugar 3:8. In addition, # lb. of tea,
4 lb. of onion powder, } 1b. of pepper and ¢ Ib. of salt was allowed per week
to each unit of three men.
462 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
and 630 1b. could be devoted to provisions, a total of
1200 lb., 7.e. about 200 Ib. per man at starting. Our con-
stant weights in the Arctic regions were 440 lb., provisions
840 lb., making a total of 1280 lb.
Ski were given a fair trial, but all were novices, and it
was found that a party on foot invariably beat a party on
ski.
For clothing, furs were eschewed, thick cloth was
used, and over all a suit of thin and loose gaberdine,
consisting of a blouse and breeches, fitting closely, however,
about the neck, wrists, and ankles. ‘‘ Balaclava” helmets
were the head-gear, with special protection for the ears
and back of the neck. In summer, when the glare was
great, broad-brimmed felt hats were preferred. For the
hands, fur or felt mitts were worn over long woollen half-
mitts. For the feet finneskos were used. These are Lapp
reindeer-fur boots, the soles being of the hard skin of
reindeer legs. Two pairs of socks were worn and the
boots were stuffed with fine hay before they were put on,
There were three kinds of goggles in use, one wire gauze
with smoked glass, another a piece of leather with a slit
in place of the glass, the third made out of a piece of wood
with cross slits cut for the eyes. The latter, used also by
the Eskimos, were the best, but attacks of snow blindness
could not be altogether prevented.
Scott adopted a quite different kind of hauling gear
from any hitherto used. Instead of working from the
shoulder, a broad band of webbing was worn round the
waist with braces for supports. The two ends of the
band were fastened by an iron ring to which a rope was
attached, secured to the trace. The men were thus
upright when pulling, and Scott believed that the weight
was thus distributed evenly over the upper part of the
body, which made the pulling easier, and gave greater
freedom for breathing.
With regard to the use of dogs there were two ways of
treating them. There was the idea of bringing them all
back safe and well, which was M’Clintock’s way, and there
was the way of getting the greatest amount of work
possible out of them, regardless of everything else, and
using them as food, which was Nansen’s and Peary’s way.
If dogs are treated with humanity, they are in the writer’s
CH. LVI] The Societies Expedition 463
opinion not so good as men in a long journey, and Scott
had an unconquerable aversion to the employment of
them in the second way. The dogs, twenty in number,
had been obtained from Siberia, but five were lost in
various ways before the travelling season arrived.
Having thus settled every part of the equipment down
to the minutest detail Scott then proceeded to plan the
work for the coming season. He himself was to lead the
journey to the south: Armitage was to attempt the main
ridge of mountains, provided with ice axes, crampons, and
ropes. Several shorter journeys were to precede them.
Royds and Skelton made their way to Cape Crozier to see
to the record post, as a signal to a relief ship, and returned
on October 24th, having discovered the breeding-place of
the Emperor penguins. On the 30th the supporting party,
under Lieut. Barne, left for Depét A, where Scott had
already established provisions.
On November 2nd the southern party started under
the command of Captain Scott, with Dr Wilson, Sub-
Lieut. Shackleton, R.N.R., and the dogs. Barne was
caught up just as he was rounding White Island. Odo-
meters had been manufactured on board, the wheel being
attached to the sterns of the sledges, so that a rough
dead-reckoning could be kept, provided that the route
was straight and the course observed and known. Stock-
fish had been brought for the diet of the dogs, and though
it had been taken by the advice of an experienced authority
on dog-driving it soon became apparent that it was having
a permanently bad effect on them. The food must have
deteriorated on the passage through the tropics. Ad-
vances could only be made by relays, going over 15 miles
to make 5 miles good.
On November 25th the iputide was 80°S. On
December 2nd they were passing a magnificent range of
mountains running S.E. and N.W., with peaks 10,000 feet
above the sea, and long rounded snow capes merging into
the barrier. A deep chasm cut them off from any nearer
approach to the land. For 31 days they had been at the
wearisome relay work, as it was impossible to drag the
whole load, but at length a suitable place for a depét
was found, called Depét B. Throughout the journey
Dr Wilson was indefatigable, spending two or three hours
464. Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [PARTU
at the end of each fatiguing day, sitting at the door of
the tent, sketching the splendid mountainous coast to the
west. Scott wrote :—
The beauty of the scene before us is much enhanced when the sun
circles low to the south, we then get the most delicate blue shadows,
and purest tones of pink and violet on the hill slopes. There is rarely
any intensity of shade—the charm lies in the subtlety and delicacy of
the colouring and in the clear softness of the distant outline.
Their furthest point was reached in 82° 17'S. December
30, 1902. The views of the land were here extremely
interesting. The cliffs rose to a height of 1800 feet, ending
in the snow expanse which rose into ridges and peaks. In
colour the cliffs were a rich deep red, further on nearly
black. The most distant peak to the south, far beyond
the 83rd parallel, was christened Mount Longstaff. To
the S.W. ‘‘there was a splendid twin-peaked mountain
which, even in such a lofty country, seemed as a giant
among pigmies.’’ Captain Scott named it Mount Markham.
One more unsuccessful attempt was made to reach the
land, but it was impossible owing to an intervening
chasm.
On the return journey the few surviving dogs were
useless, and the men had to drag the sledge, deriving
occasional help from the sail. On the 14th January,
Shackleton broke down altogether. The only hope was to
keep him on his legs, doing nothing, for the other two
could not possibly have dragged him all the way on the
sledge. On the 15th the two last of the dog team died,
but on the 28th the depot was reached and they again had
plenty of food. Shackleton struggled along on ski, in a
deplorable state, Scott and Wilson dragging the sledge,
and on the 30th they put Shackleton on it and dragged
him also. Next day he managed to walk again; his two
gallant companions being nearly worn out. The ship was
finally reached on February 3rd, 1903. In 94 days they
had gone over 800 miles, or counting relays 960 miles.
The return with their disabled comrade was nothing less
than heroic.
The western party started on December 2nd, Armitage
and Skelton with ten men forming the extended party ;
Koettlitz, Ferrar, and Dellbridge (Assistant Engineer) with
six others the limited party. Armitage’s plan was to
CH. LVII] The Societies’ Expedition 465
attempt the ascent of the mountains near a vast pile of
moraine material which he had seen on a reconnoitring
journey. The party ascended a steep snow-slope which
divides two masses of bare rocky foot-hills, and rises to a
plateau separating them from the higher mountains beyond.
Armitage reached an elevation of 5000 ft., and obtained a
view of a glacier, afterwards called the Ferrar Glacier, wind-
ing inland between high rocky cliffs. Here the supporting
party returned, while Armitage and Skelton with the rest
of the extended party continued to ascend the steep snow
slopes, most arduous and toilsome work. At 6000 ft. they
were stopped by an outcrop of rock, and Armitage then re-
solved to attempt the descent into the Ferrar Glacier, a fall
of 1800 feet. In this his party succeeded. On December
18th they commenced the ascent of the glacier, and by
January Ist, 1903, were 7500 feet above the sea. One of
the men broke down and was left in a tent with half the
party, while Armitage pushed on with the rest until his
elevation was over 8goo feet. In returning Armitage fell
down a crevasse, and was saved with great difficulty.
They returned to the ship on the 19th, after having dis-
covered a practicable route to the interior. It was a
piece of excellent pioneer work.
Many shorter but useful sledge journeys were made by
Koettlitz, Ferrar, Hodgson, and Bernacchi which threw
much light on the volcanic region, where the numerous
craters show the result of a very remarkable volcanic
outburst. Thus Koettlitz proved the insularity of Black
Island, examined the northern side of Minna Bluff, and
ascended to the summit of Brown Island, 2750 ft. in
height.
As the summer advanced the anxious work of freeing
the boats, which had sunk deep in the snow, was under-
taken ; equally laborious work was entailed in getting the
ship ready for sea, and well-founded hopes were enter-
tained that a relief ship would arrive.
M..1. 39°
CHAPTER LVIII
THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION
The Morning
THE dreadful disaster to the Franklin Expedition was
entirely due to the absence both of a relief ship and a
dep6t ship; and the necessity of providing one has ever
since been recognised. We had promised Captain Scott
that such a ship should be provided to take out provisions
and letters, bring back any invalids, and afford relief and
the means of return if anything had happened to the
Discovery. Captain Scott had furnished full information
respecting places where records would be found, and
other directions for finding his ship.
There was no time to be lost. I first carefully con-
sidered what ships suitable for arctic work were available
in Scotland, but the only one was the Terra Nova and her
price was beyond our means. This ship was built in
1884 and had been employed in Newfoundland; she
would have suited admirably had sufficient funds been
forthcoming. I therefore turned to Norway in August,
1900, where I had an excellent adviser and friend in
Captain Bonnevie of Laurvik, who had been surveyor for
the Veritas, the Norwegian Lloyds, since 1874, a good
seaman who had had immense experience. There were
a dozen ships. Of these four were too small, though
strongly built, others had dry rot. The only one that
would suit was the Morgen, but her price was £6000, and
I then had no money in hand.
It became necessary to raise funds and bring down
the price of the Morgen. The Council of the Royal
Geographical Society subscribed nothing, but the Royal
Society generously sent me £500. With his usual muni-
ficence Mr Longstaff subscribed £5000, and later Sir Edgar
Speyer gave another £5000. With these exceptions
very rich people refused to help. But hundreds of our
countrymen with small means sympathized and sent all
SUIMUAO 9
CH. LVIIT] The Societies Expedition 467
they could afford. Money came from officers in South
Africa and on the Gold Coast, in the Sudan and Uganda,
from a Gurkha regiment at Chitral, from 24 Admirals and
Captains, from several men-of-war, and a large and most
generous subscription from the acting Sub-Lieutenants at
Greenwich. One schoolboy, who was saving up his
money to buy a bicycle, sent 5s., a real act of sympathy
and self-sacrifice. Mr Cyril Longhurst was untiring and
indefatigable in seconding my efforts. I also appealed to
the Government, as there were 32 naval officers and men
on board the Discovery, who ought not to be abandoned
to their fate. The reply was that the Government denied
any responsibility and expressed surprise at being asked.
On the other hand the New Zealand Government granted
£1000. From Norwich, due to the exertions of Mr and
Mrs Colman, nearly £200 was received. The Duke of
Westminster kindly gave the use of Grosvenor House for
a concert, which yielded £483. On February r4th the
Prince of Wales sent for me to enquire about my progress
and subscribed £50, while His Majesty the King gave
£100. By July 2nd, rgo2, the receipts amounted to
£22,000.
I then went to Norway again and met Captain
Bonnevie at Ténsberg to inspect the Morgen. Mr
William Colbeck, R.N.R., then Chief Officer of the Monte-
bello (Wilson line) accompanied me, as I had decided upon
offering him the command, and ultimately I succeeded in
getting the price of the vessel reduced to £3,880. The
Morgen was built specially for strength by Mr Svend
Foyn of Ténsberg. The engines were old-fashioned but
strong, the boilers strong and serviceable. I bought the
vessel on October 23rd, rgo1, and became the managing
owner, and on the 30th she was delivered over to Bon-
nevie as our agent. Her length was r4o ft., breadth 3r ft.,
depth 164 ft., tonnage 452. I had her painted black, with
a white ribbon like the dear old Assistance, with Morning
on her stern in white. On arrival in England she was
handed over to Messrs Green of Blackwall for consider-
able repairs and alterations, which were effected under
the superintendence of Lieut. Colbeck.
William Colbeck, born at Hull in 1871, was educated
at Hull grammar school, and went through a six months’
30—2
468 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
coursé of navigation before going to sea as an apprentice,
at the age of 15. He passed for first Mate in July 1892,
and got a Master’s extra-certificate in 1897. Since 1900
he had served as chief officer of the Montebello under
Captain Pepper. After going through a course of
magnetism at Kew, he joined the Newnes Antarctic
Expedition as navigator, cartographer, and one of the
magnetic and meteorological observers. He proved him-
self to be an acute and intelligent observer and his
descriptions of parts of the coast of Victoria Land are
excellent. He had acquired experience in Antarctic ice
navigation. There could not bea better man to command
our relief ship, and he was appointed on February roth,
tgoz. After some delay, he received his commission as
a Lieutenant R.N.R. and I had the pleasure of conferring
upon him Sir George Back’s geographical award for his
former services in the Antarctic regions.
Captain Colbeck chose for his chief officer Mr Rupert
England, who held the same position on board the Angelo
of Wilson’s line. He was a steady attentive officer who
knew his work, and saw that the men did theirs. Mr
Morrison, the engineer, was an excellent and zealous
officer, always making the best of everything. Dr David-
son, the surgeon, a distinguished student and medallist
of Edinburgh University, was an excellent doctor and very
popular. Two friends, formerly cadets of the Worcester,
came to volunteer, Evans a naval Sub-Lieutenant, and
Doorly a P. and O. officer, and they were very anxious to
be taken as junior executive officers. Evans had excellent
certificates, was keen, able, and full of zeal. Gerald Doorly
was a musician, an athlete, and a student, in the racing
boat’s crew of the Worcester, and Queen’s Gold Medallist
on board that ship. He proved to be very popular and
clever, always bright and cheerful, and a hard worker.
Then came Mulock, a naval Sub-Lieutenant who was very
pressing and said he must go; so I got leave from the
Admiralty for him also. He was an acquisition, for he
had served in the Triton surveying ship under Captain
Cust, who had the highest opinion of him. He was a
surveyor and an excellent draughtsman. There were two
midshipmen, Maitland Somerville and a son of Captain
Pepper.
CH. LVIII] The Societies E-xpeaition 469
For the crew, as a nucleus, Captain Colbeck got several
volunteers from his old ship the Montebello, and the rest
appeared satisfactory. Cheetham, the boatswain from the
Montebello, was a very smart respectable man who could
be trusted to take charge of a watch. He continued in
the service and now has a long record of Antarctic work.
The officers were entertained at dinner by the Geo-
graphical Club, when a glee was sung specially composed
for the occasion. Afterwards the Bishop of Stepney
kindly came on board and conducted a farewell service,
The ship was loaded with letters and papers, and supplies
of all kinds for the Discovery. I had been rather anxious
about the pemmican, and I sent out a fresh supply which
I believed to be very good, manufactured by the Bovril
Company.
During the long voyage to Lyttelton all went well;
and the ship was received in New Zealand with cordial
hospitality. On the 6th December, 1902, they sailed for
the Antarctic. The Morning met with adverse winds and
frequent gales at first, until she reached 60° S. in longitude
170° 30’ E., when Captain Colbeck was able to stand away
to the south with a W.S.W. wind and fine clear weather.
He decided to work south between longitudes 178° and
180° E., well to the eastward of the Balleny Islands.
The Antarctic Circle was crossed on Christmas Day in
179° 30’ E., when icebergs became numerous. At 2 p.m.
two small islands were sighted, and later the Morning
steamed round them. The largest was about 1} miles
long and three-quarters of a mile broad, rising to about
250 ft. The other islet or rock was only about 200 ft. in
diameter and 250 ft. high. Captain Colbeck, accompanied
by Mulock and two others, effected a landing with some
difficulty on a beach on the southern side of the larger
island, and collected some rock specimens. Thousands
of birds were on both islands. Mulock made a careful
survey and the position was fixed. It received the name
of Scott Island and is a discovery of special interest, from
its isolated position.
Making her way through much heavy pack ice, the
Morning came in sight of the lofty mountains of Victoria
Land on the 3rd January, 1903, when a very heavy gale
was encountered. On the 8th Captain Colbeck landed at
470 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PART
Cape Adare and then proceeded to the south, guided in
his search by the information in Captain Scott’s letter.
Reaching Franklin Island, England landed and searched
the beach, but could find no record. Captain Colbeck
and Mulock then landed at Cape Crozier and found the
record announcing the position of the winter quarters
of the Discovery in M’Murdo Sound. The Morning then
proceeded to Cape Bird and announced her arrival to
the Discovery by signal. The mails, stores, and pro-
visions were transferred to the Discovery with all possible
speed. The distance between the ships was six miles of
ice, and 14 tons of stores were transported, officers and
men carrying out the work with admirable zeal and
determination. The Mornings dragged the loads to a
half-way flag, and the Discoveries took them on—a heavy
job completed with alacrity and despatch.
Some invalids and others, including Shackleton, were
sent home in the Morning; and Mulock, an acquisition
as a draughtsman, surveyor, and good messmate, was
transferred to the Discovery.
On the 2nd March the Morning began her return
voyage, arriving at Lyttelton on the 25th, ready to
return again for the relief of the Discovery in the ensuing
year. England had proved himself to be an indefatigable
worker and an excellent seaman. Evans had been of great
assistance in the navigation of the ship, and in the work
of transporting the stores over the ice. Doorly had kept
the meteorological records. All had done well. Above all
Captain Colbeck had proved that there could be no better
man to perform the very important duties which the
command of the Morning. entailed.
CHAPTER LIX
THE SOCIETIES’ ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION
Second Year.
THE arrival of the Morning with letters and fresh
supplies of stores and provisions was a very welcome
incident for the explorers, though the precaution had
been taken to collect the largest possible supply of seal
and other fresh meat. The need for constant exercise
had been kept in view; there was a good deal of hockey
on the ice, dancing, and other amusements. The second
winter thus passed without sickness and in the pleasantest
fashion.
When the travelling season approached Captain Scott
decided that there should be a journey over the mountains
to the west, led by himself, one to the south under Barne
and Mulock, and one to the south-east over the barrier
ice under Royds and Bernacchi, besides several shorter
journeys for specific purposes.
Captain Scott started on September gth, 1903, with
Mr Skelton, Evans, Lashly, Mr Dailey, and Handsley. The
first object was to find a new road to the Ferrar Glacier,
and to lay out a depot. The discovery of a route by New
Harbour was made, and the glacier was entered. It lay
between massive cliffs like a ribbon of blue, down the
middle of which ran a dark streak caused by a double line
of boulders—a median moraine. The depét was placed
on this moraine, 2000 ft. above the sea. Scott observed
that where Antarctic glaciers run east and west the south
side is much broken up and decayed, while the north side
is comparatively smooth and even. The reason is that
the most direct and warmest rays of the sun fall on the
south side of a valley, and here the greatest amount of
summer melting takes place.
Scott’s party returned, and found that Barne had
laid out a depét S.E. of White Island, the temperature
being as low as —70°. Royds had reached Cape Crozier
472, Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
and found that the Emperor penguins had hatched out
their young.
Barne and Mulock began their extended journey on
October 6th to Barne Inlet. Scott’s party started on
their very difficult enterprise of discovering the ice cap
on the rzth. His party was a combination of three
separate parties. The first consisted of Captain Scott,
Mr Skelton, Mr Feather the boatswain, Evans, Lashly,
and Handsley. Secondly there was the geological party,
consisting of Mr Ferrar with Kennar and Weller. The
third, the auxiliary supporting party, consisted of Dailey
the carpenter, and two other men, Williamson and
Plumley. An absence of nine weeks was calculated for
the extended party, and six weeks were allowed to
Mr Ferrar for his geological studies. They started with
four r1-ft. sledges, and no animal traction, dragging 200 lb,
each at starting.
One of the noblest passages in Scott’s great work
compares the use of dogs with that of men for traction.
Admitting that dogs, ruthlessly used, increase the dis-
tances that may be reached he adds :—
“To pretend that they can be worked to this end without pain, suffer-
ing, and death is futile. The introduction of such sordid necessity must
and does rob sledge-travelling of much of its glory. To my mind no
journey ever made with dogs can approach the height of the fine
conception which is realised when a party of men go forth to face
hardships, dangers, and difficulties with their own unaided efforts
and by days and weeks of hard physical labour succeed in solving
some problem of the great unknown. Surely in this case the conquest
is more nobly and splendidly won.”’
On October 18th the condition of the sledges obliged
them to return. Only one remained sound. On the
others the German silver on the runners was split to
ribbons and the wood deeply scored. Leaving the sound
sledge and a large depdt they hurried back to the ship,
the last march covering 36 miles. The sledges were
repaired, and Ferrar now took a smaller 7 ft. sledge.
The final start was made on October 26th; and they
crossed the sea ice at arate of 25 milesa day. There was
continual trouble with the runners, and Mr Skelton with
the stokers of the party were kept at work with pliers,
files, and hammers, stripping off the torn metal and
lapping fresh pieces over the weak places.
CH. LIX] The Societies Expedition 473
On November 3rd they had reached a height of 7000 ft.
The majestic cliffs were below them and they gazed over
the summits of mountains to the eastward. Next day it
was blowing a full gale, and there was only just time to get
the tents up when it burst upon them. It was a week
before they were able to move again, and throughout the
whole time the gale raged incessantly.
The delight of being able to start again may be
imagined, and on the 13th they had reached the summit
at a height of 8900 ft. with five weeks’ provisions in hand.
They found themselves on a great snow plain with a level
horizon all round, but above it to the east rose the tops
of mountains. Captain Scott had discovered the great
Antarctic ice-cap.
The gale had blown away the nautical tables so that
the observations could not be worked out until their
return. Scott’s inventive talent came into play. Hecould
calculate the declination for certain fixed days, and having
ruled a sheet of his note-paper in squares, he plotted these
points on the squares, and joined them with a curve.
It was afterwards found that the curve was nowhere more
than 4’ in error. It gave him the latitude with as much
accuracy as was needed at the time.
The cold on the ice-cap was intense, — 44° Fahr. But
they had reached the lofty plateau, leaving the mountain
peaks behind, and before them lay the unknown. Scott
resolved to press onwards. On November 22nd he went
on with Evans and Lashly, the rest returning.
From a magnetic point of view this was a very
interesting region. The travellers were directly south of
the magnetic pole, and the north end of the compass
pointed south, or a variation of 180°!
Of Scott’s two companions, Evans, who had been a
gymnastic instructor in the navy, was a man of herculean
strength. Lashly had been a non-smoker and a teeto-
taller all his life, and had the largest chest measurement
in the ship. The progress made was rapid, though they
had to struggle over a sea of broken and distorted snow-
waves, causing frequent capsizes of the far-too-narrow
sledge. The night temperature continued as low as — 40°,
and, judging from the sastvugi, the wind blows from west
to east across the ice-cap, often with great violence, and
474. Arcticand Antarctic Exploration [partu
as the summer temperature is — 40° the cold of the winter
may be imagined. The little party of three resolutely
pushed on to the westward until November 30th. They
had gone for 200 miles over the ice-cap, and could see
nothing beyond but a further expanse of the terrible
plateau. Yet, “After all,’’ writes Scott,
“it is not what we see that inspires awe, but the knowledge of what
lies beyond our view. We see only a few miles of ruffled snow bounded
by a vague wavy horizon, but we know that beyond that horizon are
hundreds and even thousands of miles which offer no change to the
weary eye...nothing but this terrible limitless expanse of snow.
It has been so for countless ages and it will be so for countless more.
,-Could anything be more terrible than this silent wind-swept
immensity ?”’
On December rst the little party turned their steps
homewards. Day by day they struggled on over rough
snow ridges in thick weather. On the 15th all were
precipitated down a steep slope for 200 ft., finding them-
selves sore and bruised at the bottom, and near the upper
entrance of the glacier. It was a month since Scott had
seen any known landmark. They started again, Scott in
the middle and a little in front, Lashly on his right, and
Evans on his left. They had been going for a quarter
of an hour when Scott and Evans suddenly disappeared
down a crevasse. Almost by a miracle Lashly saved
himself from following, and sprang back with his whole
weight on the trace. The sledge rushed past him and
jumped the crevasse down which Scott and Evans had
gone. The two who had fallen were dangling at the ends
of their traces with blue walls of ice on each side and a
fathomless. abyss below. Scott struggled on to a thin
shaft of ice wedged between the walls of the chasm,
guiding Evans’s feet to the same support. The great
danger was that the intense cold would soon render them
powerless. There was no time to lose, and Scott by a
desperate effort managed to swarm up the trace and
flung himself on the snow. With the united efforts of
Scott and Lashly Evans was also landed on the surface.
Both were terribly frost-bitten. On the same evening
they reached their nunatak depot and next day, by a
long march, arrived at the main depdt. There were no
further troubles, and the three reached the ship on the
23rd December.
CH, LIX] The Societies Expedition 475
In his absence of fifty-nine days Scott and his com-
panions had travelled over 725 miles, but for nine days
they had been confined to the tent by gales of wind.
The distance, therefore, was accomplished in fifty march-
ing days, a daily average of 144 miles. Taking the whole
eighty-one days of absence they had covered ro98 miles
at a little under 154 miles a day. They had reached the
limit of possible performance, under the hardest conditions.
This is, in some respects, the greatest polar journey on
record without dogs. The only comparison can be with
the journeys of M’Clintock and Mecham. But they had not
the intense cold, the danger from crevasses, and the great
height to climb. Nor can any one journey be compared
with it as regards the value and importance of its results.
Scott discovered the vast Antarctic ice-cap and explored
it for 200 miles, and his observations enabled Captain
Chetwynd to fix the position of the south magnetic pole.
Barne and Mulock marched to the south, but, after
leaving Minna Bluff, they were much hampered by
southerly gales which confined them to the tent for ten
days. They had barely reached the mouth of the inlet
which they were to explore when they were obliged to
return. The ground was scarcely passable, and they had
to cross wide crevasses, and clamber over steep ridges.
Mulock was indefatigable in the use of the theodolite, so
that this stretch of coast-line has been very accurately
plotted. But the most important result of Barne’s journey
was the discovery that the ice on the barrier moved.
Depot A lay on an alignment with a small peak on Minna
Bluff and Mount Discovery in 1902. Barne found the
depdt was no longer on with this small peak and Mount
Discovery and, therefore, that it must have moved. Thir-
teen and a half months after the establishment of Depét
A Barne measured the displacement, and found that it
had moved 608 yards. Barne and his party were absent
68 days.
The journey of Royds and Bernacchi over the ice of
the barrier to the S.E. occupied thirty days. Scott wrote,
“Tt deserves to rank very high in our sledging efforts, for
every detail was carried out in the most thoroughly
efficient manner.”’ A very interesting series of magnetic
observations were taken by Bernacchi, who carried with
476 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parTu
him the Barrow dip circle, a specially delicate instrument.
The party returned on the roth December, having accom-
plished an exceedingly fine journey. There were several
shorter journeys. Dr Wilson was at Cape Crozier again
to study the habits of the Emperor penguins during twelve
days, and Armitage explored the Koettlitz glacier, pre-
viously only seen from Brown Island, and obtained some
excellent photographs.
Captain Scott ordered all the parties, when they re-
turned from sledging and had rested, to join the sawing
camp about ten miles to the north, where work was being
proceeded with for cutting the ship out of the ice. But
it was soon found that the task was an impossible one,
and it was accordingly relinquished.
The Morning was got ready for her second voyage,
with arrangements complete for taking all the Discovery's
officers and men on board if necessary, which was very
unlikely. But the Government began to interfere. The
Terra Nova, Captain MacKay, was bought and sent out
as well as the Morning, which was quite unnecessary and
a great waste of public money, for all that was required
could have been perfectly done by the Morning. The two
ships arrived at the edge of the ice on the 5th January,
1904. The Discovery was freed from the ice on the 16th
February. A large wooden cross, with an inscription, had
been made.in memory of Vince, and this was erected on
the summit of Hut Point before their departure.
On the 17th a furious gale of wind sprang up. A heavy
anchor was down. Steam was got up, but the wind was
more powerful and the ship was driven upon a shoal near
Hut Point at 1ra.m. The gale kept increasing in force,
the seas broke over the Discovery’s starboard quarter and
she listed heavily to port, the keel constantly pounding
and grinding on the stones. Late in the afternoon the
wind abated and the ship began working astern. The
engines were put full speed astern, and she slid gently into
deep water. There was no leakage, an eloquent testimony
to the solid structure of the ship, and what showed every
sign of becoming a great disaster was happily averted.
The Discovery then received her coal from the relief
ships, Colbeck reducing himself to the very narrowest
limits, keeping just enough to take him back to New
CH. LIX] The Societies Expedition A77
Zealand. Scott intended to explore westward from Cape
North. In the voyage northward the rudder was damaged,
and the Discovery, after rounding Cape Adare, anchored
in Robertson Bay, where the rudder was shifted, As
soon as the spare rudder was in place the vessel put to
sea again, February 25th, and was soon in the thick of the
icebergs. There was a great mass of closely-packed ice
towards Cape North. Captain Scott, therefore, altered
course and sighted the Balleny Islands on the 2nd March,
afterwards proceeding west to beyond 159° E., where the
ship was actually behind Wilkes’s alleged land. On
March 4th she was in 67° 23S. and 155° 30’ E., and it was
quite clear that Eld’s Peak and Ringgold’s Knoll did not
exist, Cape Hudson is also imaginary, and there is no case
for any land near that latitude eastward of Adélie Land.
The coast turns S.E. to Cape North. On April rst the
Discovery arrived at Lyttelton, where a most cordial
reception awaited her.
The Discovery sailed again June 8th, completing her
magnetic survey across the South Pacific. Passing
through Magellan Strait, Port Stanley was visited for coal,
and on the -roth September the good ship was anchored
at Spithead. Never has any polar expedition returned
with so great a harvest of results. The discoveries alone
were remarkable—the entirely new land of King Edward
VII, the nature of the ice on the barrier, the great Victorian
range of mountains, the volcanic region of Ross and the
smaller islands, the glaciers and the remarkable pheno-
menon of their recession, the great Antarctic ice-cap over
which. Captain Scott and two companions travelled for
200 miles, the discovery of the position of the south
magnetic pole, and the lines of deep sea soundings with
serial temperatures and dredgings. Yet these are only
the skeleton which is provided with flesh and blood by
the scientific results and observations which are contained
in the twelve large volumes published on the voyage.
Captain Scott’s own narrative, in two volumes,
beautifully illustrated by Dr Wilson, was worthy of the
expedition. It was his first literary effort, but the great
explorer had a natural gift, and there are few polar stories
to be compared with the Voyage of the Discovery either
in literary merit or in scientific interest.
CHAPTER LX
SHACKLETON’S ATTEMPT TO REACH THE POLE
SHACKLETON’S expedition to reach the South Pole
differed from any previous one in that ponies were
employed. Great care was exercised in the equipment,
the sledges were built in Christiania, and ten 12 ft.,
eighteen 11 ft., and two 7ft. were taken. Woollen
garments were almost exclusively used, with an outer
suit of wind-proof gaberdine; fur being restricted to the
sleeping bags, and to foot and hand coverings. ‘‘Finnesko”’
boots filled with sennegrass were, however, largely used.
A hut, 33 ft. by 19 ft., was taken out in pieces ready
for erection, lighted with acetylene gas and heated by
anthracite. There were 15 Manchurian ponies, nine
Siberian dogs, and a motor car, but much was not ex-
pected of either of the two latter modes of traction.
The intention was to land a shore-party, which was to
winter, and though the scientific work of the expedition was
not to be sacrificed, one of the main objects was to reach
the South Pole. The ship’s staff consisted of 14 officers
and crew under the command of Lieut. R. N. England,
R.N.R., who had been first officer in the Morning; the
shore party were also 14, with Shackleton as commander.
Professor T. W. E. David was Director of the scientific
staff, Dr Douglas Mawson physicist, Mr J. Murray
biologist, Mr Raymond Priestley and Sir Philip Brockle-
hurst geologists, and Lieut. J. B. Adams meteorologist.
The vessel purchased for the expedition was the Nimrod,
a not very suitable craft, being small and not able to
make more than six knots under steam. She proved,
however, to be better than was anticipated.
On July 30th, 1907, the Nimrod left the East India
Docks for New Zealand, King Edward and Queen Alex-
andra and others of the Royal party paying a visit to the
ship at Cowes. She reached Lyttelton and sailed on New
Year’s Day, 1908, for the south, being towed to the edge
CH. Lx] Shackleton’s Expedition 479
of the pack, a distance of over 1500 miles, and meeting
with very heavy weather. After trying along the Barrier
for a place for winter quarters a landing was ultimately
made close toCape Royds at Ross I, under great difficulties,
and on February 22nd the Nimrod left on her return
voyage to New Zealand.
On March 5th an expedition with a supporting party
was arranged to ascend Mt Erebus, and in this they
were successful; the summit, which was estimated at
13,370 ft., being reached on March roth. A striking
feature was found to be the vast quantity of large and
perfect felspar crystals on the snow around the crater.
Preliminary sledge journeys were made from August
to get all hands into practice, and visits were made to
Hut Point of the Discovery expedition, whither ultimately
everything needed for the journey to the South Pole was
brought, in order that the start might be made from the
most southern point possible. Depéts were also laid out.
Ill luck befell them with the ponies, only four being left
at the start. It was resolved that the sledge loads should
be limited to 6501b., the sledge itself weighing 60 lb.
The daily rations for the polar journey per man were as
follows:—Pemmican 740z., biscuit 160z., cheese or
chocolate and cocoa 2-7 0z., plasmon and quaker oats
each I 0Z., sugar 4°3 0z., emergency ration I°5 0z., total
340z. This was doubtless an insufficient quantity, the
pemmican allowance especially being much too small.
On October 29th the southern party, consisting of
Adams, Marshall, and Wild, under Shackleton, started,
accompanied by a supporting party who returned on
November 7th. The ponies did well, but crevasses
rendered the going very dangerous and narrow escapes
more than once occurred. Later the surface became soft,
and on November a2ist the first pony had to be shot,
and a week later two others, the conditions being very
bad. On December 1st the latitude of 83°16’ was
reached and they were left with one pony, which pulled
one of the sledges while the other was dragged by them-
selves. Misfortune, however, was soon to overtake them,
for on December 7th the last pony fell down a crevasse,
and complete disaster was only just avoided.
The sledges had now to be dragged by the explorers
480 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Parti
unaided, but by December 16th they had crossed over
100 miles of dangerously crevassed glacier and were at
an altitude of some 6000 ft. The ground steadily rose,
and on December 28th an altitude of 10,199 ft. was
attained. The party suffered from a kind of mountain
sickness, and the lessening food, combined with failing
strength, made it evident that success was beyond their
powers. They persevered for a few days longer, until
January gth, 1909, when the flag was hoisted in what was
calculated to be Lat. 88° 23'S., and the return march
was begun. This was a desperate struggle against
starvation, failing strength, and disease, for a form of
dysentery attacked all of the party, and it was only by
providential fortune that Shackleton and Wild were able
to reach the Nimrod (which by this time had arrived) on
March ist, and the others three days later. The explorers
had done all that was humanly possible on a somewhat
inadequate supply of food, due mainly to an insufficiently-
considered scheme of depdt-laying. A noteworthy fact
was that both on the outward and the return journey
the wind had been very greatly in their favour.
During the absence of Shackleton and his companions
on their southward march, the Western Party, consisting
of Armitage, Priestley, and Brocklehurst, did some work
in the western mountains and obtained a valuable series
of geological specimens. On their way back, while
encamped on the sea ice, it broke up, and they were
carried out to sea. Their position seemed desperate, for
some miles of open water separated them from the shore,
and the day passed without relief, but by the greatest
good fortune the floe was at length swept back into
contact with the shore ice for a few seconds and they
were just able to get across.
A third expedition was meanwhile being undertaken
by the Northern Party, which was also composed of
three men—Professor David, Mawson, and Mackay.
The main object was accurately to determine the position
of the South Magnetic Pole, and to reach it, while if
possible a rough geological survey of the coast of Victoria
Land was to be made if time and opportunity permitted.
The start was made on October 5th, and twelve days
later, after landing at Cape Bernacchi, the Union Jack
SOUeISIP UT BUINOGIEIAT IIAI—eq asoo7y jeordA 7
CH. LX] Shackleton’s Expedition 481
was hoisted and Victoria Land taken possession of for
the British Empire. Progress was very slow, only about
four miles a day being covered by relay work. The
Drygalski Glacier, however, was reached in the beginning
of December, whence the party turned inland, and on
January 16th the mean position for the magnetic pole,
as calculated by Mawson, was reached in Lat. 72° 25’S.,
Long. 155° 16’E. The return was made to the depot
left by them on the Drygalski Glacier, and this was
attained on February 3rd after desperately hard work
and many narrow escapes from falling into crevasses.
Next day they were picked up by the Nimrod, having
brought their work to a successful termination. The
remaining parties were then picked up and the Nimrod
arrived safely in Lyttelton on March 25th.
31
CHAPTER LxXI-
AMUNDSEN’S JOURNEY TO THE SOUTH POLE
SHACKLETON’S attempt to reach the South Pole was
soon followed by another and more successful one. The
Norwegian, Amundsen, whose conquest of the North-west
Passage had fascinated him with Arctic work, had formed
a project of drifting across the North Pole after the
manner of Nansen. Funds for such an expensive expedi-
tion, however, were difficult to obtain, and it was while
awaiting events that the idea occurred to him of making
a bid for fame and the South Pole together, the latter
goal requiring less time and hence less expense. But the
affair was kept secret, and when on August gth, rg10, the
Fram left Norway under Roald Amundsen with 110 dogs
and 18 men, she left for an unknown destination. Reach-
ing Madeira on the 5th September this was announced to
be the South Pole.
There were several points of difference between the
Norwegian expedition and those led by Scott and
Shackleton. The first, and perhaps the most important,
was that dogs were to form the motive power, instead of
men as in Scott’s, or men plus ponies as in Shackleton’s
journey. All the Norwegians had been practised ski-
runners from childhood, but the English were very
indifferent performers in this respect. The English
always used woollen clothing, the Norwegians only wore
it in moderate temperatures, invariably using fur for the
extreme cold, It was not a teetotal expedition, though
alcohol was apparently only served out about twice a
week, The aim was to make seal meat as much as possible
the basis of their rations, and whether owing to this or
not the fact remains that there was not a single case of
scurvy throughout.
On January 2nd, ro1z, the Antarctic Circle was
crossed, and a few hours later the pack was sighted.
Fortune favoured them and they got through it with
cH. LXxI] 4mundsen’s journey to the South Pole 483
great rapidity—‘‘a four days’ pleasure-trip,’’ Amundsen
called it. They were no less favoured in finding Ross
Sea free from icebergs, and on January 11th they reached
the Great Barrier and altered course due east for the
Bay of Whales, their destination, which they reached on
the following day. Their hut was in 78° 40’S. and
164° W., three miles from the edge of the Barrier, and
150 ft. above the sea. Great herds of seals were found
here—Weddell’s seals and “‘crab-eaters’—but at that
time not many penguins. The crew were now divided into
two parties. It had been decided to despatch the Fram
on an oceanographical cruise while the Polar journey was
attempted, and with her went ten men under Capt.
Nilsen. The party to be left on shore consisted of eight.
Without loss of time the hut, ““Framheim,’” which had
been brought out in pieces, was erected, and the party
set to work to shoot and store seals, of which they soon
had a pile of r00 or more. On February 4th Capt. Scott’s
ship, the Terra Nova, entered the bay on its way from
M’Murdo Sound.
On February roth the first expedition for the placing
of depéts started; it consisted of four men and three
sledges, each drawn by six dogs, and left a depot in Lat.
80° S., a distance of 93 miles, which took them 4% days.
They drove back in two days, running no less than 62
miles in one day. On February 22nd the second depdt
expedition started, consisting of eight men, seven sledges,
and 42 dogs. . They passed the depot in 80° S., and reached
8x°S. on March 3rd, where they left a depot of 1234 lb.
of dogs’ pemmican, and three men returned. They
flagged their depéts for a distance of 53 miles at right
angles on each side, the flags being about 1000 yards
apart, so that they should be sure of not missing them.
The weather was very cold for the season, — 49° Fahr.
Five days later, March 8th, Lat.’82°S. was attained, and
1370 lb. of pemmican placed in depot. But the dogs
had suffered greatly and they could not get farther. They
got back to the base March aist, having lost 8 dogs
altogether. On March 31st the third depot party left
for Lat. 82°S., returning April rrth, and by the time winter
arrived they had a total of 3 tons of supplies in their
depots.
31—2
484 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [partTu
Anxious to lose no time, they started for their attempt
on the Pole on September 8th, but it was soon evident
that it was far too early, the temperature being — 60°
Fahr. or thereabouts, and the party returned after
reaching the first depét in 80°S. and leaving further
stores there.
At length, on October 19th, rg11, the final start was
made—five men, Amundsen, Bjaaland, Wisting, Hassel,
and Hanssen, with four sledges, each with 13 dogs.
Under favourable conditions the pace attained was very
fast, and 44 miles per hour was covered with the greatest
ease. They now began the system of putting up beacons
of snow, 6 ft. high, each of which was numbered and gave
the distance and direction of the next one to the north.
They were put up about every 13th or 15th kilometre,
and 150 of them were erected. After 81°S. they were
put up every 9 kilometres. The final depét at 82°S.
was reached and left on November 6th, and the latitude
of 83° on November 8th, and here provisions for 5 men
and 12 dogs for four days were left.
On November roth they approached the great moun-
tain chain, the mighty peaks of which rose to heights of
15,000 ft., and on the 12th made their depot in Lat. 84°S.
leaving provisions for 5 men and 12 dogs for five days,
as well as matches and about 4 gallons of paraffin. Three
days later they were in 85°S. It was from here that
they decided to make their dash for the Pole—a distance
there and back of 683 English miles—and it was resolved
to take 60 days’ provisions on the sledges, leaving the
remainder, 30 days, in depot. The weather was very
fine, and in this respect they were peculiarly fortunate.
On the 17th they began their passage through the
mountain range and found it easier than they had
expected. The dogs were in admirable condition, and
nearing 86° S. they found the heat positively disagreeable,
and “‘sweated as if they were running races in the tropics.”
Twenty-four dogs were killed for food on reaching the
divide, and a rest of five days taken, partly owing to a
blizzard. Great difficulties now beset them on the
glacier on the farther side, and one day only 24 miles
were covered. In Lat. 87°, however, things improved,
and December 4th and following days they progressed at
CH.LXI] 4mundsen’s journey to the South Pole 485
the rate of some 25 miles a day. On the 6th they passed
Lat. 88° S., and were at an altitude of a little over 11,000 ft.
A meridian altitude was obtained in 88° 16’ S. on Decem-
ber 7th, and a little later Shackleton’s record of 88° 23’
was beaten. Two miles farther they camped and left
220 lb. of stores. They were suffering greatly from frost
sores on the face and shortness of breath. On the 14th
December, 1911, the Pole was reached without further
adventure. After a series of observations the return
journey was begun on the 17th. On January 6th they
reached the Barrier and met with much snow and a
temperature of 17° Fahr. The remaining dogs were in
very good condition, and 34 miles were made one day.
On January 25th, 1912, they were all safely back at
“Framheim” with eleven dogs. The journey of 1860
miles had taken 99 days. It was a miracle of forethought
and organisation, the success of which was greatly aided
by remarkably favourable weather conditions, and no
doubt also by the fact that the explorers were all practised
ski-runners. All returned in perfect health.
CHAPTER LXII
MAWSON’S EXPEDITION
It had always been desired that that portion of the
coast of Antarctica which faces Australia, along which
Balleny, and afterwards Wilkes and Dumont d’Urville,
had sailed more than sixty years ago, should be landed
upon and explored. The coast is not one that faces
eastward, and much accessible land could not be expected.
It was assumed that there would probably be ice cliffs
for the most part, and the ice-cap inland. Still, explora-
tion of this locality was very desirable.
Mr Mawson! undertook the difficult enterprise. He
had made a very fine journey to the South Magnetic Pole
during Shackleton’s Expedition, and was deeply interested
in Antarctic problems. Born in Australia he wished his
expedition to be mainly an Australian undertaking. The
Aurora, a fine steamer, was purchased and Captain Davis
received the command. There could be no better man,
both as a sailor and an enthusiast in the work of deep-sea
sounding, Frank Wild, who had been both on the Dis-
covery and the Nimrod, was appointed to command a
second landing party. Dr Mertz was the naturalist.
Ninnis, a 2nd Lieut. of the Royal Fusiliers, son of my old
friend Dr Belgrave Ninnis of the Discovery in the Arctic
expedition of 1875-6, first wrote to me from Pietermaritz-
burg, full of Antarctic enthusiasm, in September 1909,
and his excellent qualifications obtained for him a place
on the scientific staff of the Aurora.
The Aurora left Hobart December 2nd, ror, arriving
at Macquarie Island on the 11th to land five men, who
were to install and manage the wireless telegraph. On
Christmas Day the voyage to the south, was resumed.
1 Sir Douglas Mawson was born in 1882, the son of Mr R. E. Mawson,
of Otley, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Sydney University and
graduated as Bachelor of Mining Engineering 1901, Bachelor of Science
1904, Doctor of Science 1909, He was Lecturer in Mineralogy at Adelaide
University in 1905.
CH. LXI1] Mawsows Expedition 487
On January 3rd, 1912, the ice cliffs were sighted, 50 to
80 ft. high, and the Awrora sailed along them all day.
On the 6th she crossed the Antarctic Circle and sighted
Adélie Land, with small rocky islets off the coast. On
the 8th a landing was effected, and winter quarters were
established in 66° 48’S. and 143°5’E. Mawson landed
with Dr Mertz, Lieut. Ninnis, and 15 men, all hands
working hard at landing the hut, stores, and provisions.
Their quarters were at the western end of Adélie Land, in
a bay with ice cliffs on both sides. It received the name
of Commonwealth Bay.
On January rgth, 1912, the Aurora sailed eastward
to land another party of eight men under Frank Wild.
They met with many icebergs and heavy pack, but the
Céte Clarie of Dumont d’Urville had disappeared, From
the 24th to the 27th the Aurora encountered gales and
heavy seas. It was not until February 1gth in Lat.
66° 18’ 28S. and Long. 94° 58’ E. that Captain Davis
found a place on the ice cliffs to land Wild’s party and
their provisions, and it was only with the greatest
difficulty that Wild got his stores on shore and managed
to haul them up to the top of the ice cliff. The two
stations were 1200 miles apart. Having passed the winter
on this ice, Wild and his companions made two important
journeys. One was nearly to Sabrina Land, the other
connected Wild’s base with Kaiser Wilhelm II Land.
The Aurora returned to Hobart on March 11th, 1912.
In the spring Dr Mawson, with Dr Mertz and Ninnis,
undertook a journey with dogs over the ice cap to the
S.E. While travelling over the ice, many days after
leaving the winter station, the sledge, dogs, and Ninnis
suddenly disappeared down a crevasse and were seen no
more. Mawson and Mertz were left with scarcely any
food and only six dogs, and began to make their way
back, undergoing terrible privations from which Dr Mertz
died. Mawson, now the sole survivor, succeeded in
reaching the winter quarters after 31 days of untold
hardship and danger.
The loss of Lieut. Ninnis was deeply felt by his friends.
He was full of life and energy, and deeply interested in his
work. He had the makings of a very good officer, in what-
ever branch of the service he might have been employed.
488 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
The Aurora had arrived off the winter quarters in
January, 1913, but was unable to wait for the return of
Mawson himself, so that he and sixteen men were left to
face a second winter. On F ebruary 23rd, however,
Captain Davis reached Wild’s station, taking him and his
party on board, and bringing them back to Hobart. The
Aurora returned again the next summer, picking up
Mawson on December 13th, 1913. After carrying out
some important oceanographical work she reached
Adelaide on February 26th, 1914.
The result of this expedition was the final connecting up
of the northern coast of Antarctica from Lieut. Pennell’s
discovery to Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, which was found,
as I anticipated, to be the edge or northern boundary of
the ice cap, with scarcely any visible land. It is from
coasts with eastern aspects that interesting discoveries
will be made. A further valuable result were the lines
of deep sea soundings taken by Captain Davis.
POAPPRR UX
CAPTAIN SCOTT’S LAST EXPEDITION
a
THE ideal of Captain Scott was completeness, and he
put it into practice in his second expedition. This is the
reason that the areas discovered from his chosen M’Murdo
base are far more exhaustively explored, as regards every
branch of science, than any other area within either the
Arctic or Antarctic Circles.
After four years of naval service Scott entered upon
the organisation of his final expedition. In September
1g08 he was happily married to Miss Kathleen Bruce,
who gave signal encouragement and help to her husband
in all his work connected with the expedition. With such
help the labour of preparation was much lightened, and
the work of collecting the funds, a tedious and wearisome
business, was fairly successful. Sir Edgar Speyer con-
sented to act as treasurer, Mr George Wyatt was business
manager, and Mr Drake, R.N., secretary. In September,
1909, the Terra Nova, the largest of the Dundee whalers,
was purchased from Messrs Bowring of Liverpool, and
handed over in the West India Docks on November 8th.
She was barque-rigged, built in 1884, was of 744 tons
gross and 450 net register; with a length of 187 ft.,
beam 31 ft., depth 19 ft. Scott had been elected to the
Royal Yacht Squadron, so the Terra Nova flew the white
ensign. Most of the interior re-fitting was entrusted to
Lieut. Evans, who was to be captain on the way out,
but to land when the station for wintering was reached.
The provisions were most carefully selected and packed.
Special 4-inch theodolites were constructed for sledge
travelling, and there were 8 chronometers and 12 deck
watches. Ponies and good teams of dogs were obtained
from Siberia by Mr Meares, Commander Wilfred Bruce
meeting him at Vladivostock. They were brought to
New Zealand with two Russian drivers.
490 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PaRTU
The expedition had two 12-ft. and thirty ordinary
sledges, ordered at Christiania. Captain Scott was very
anxious that his experiments with motor sledges should
be successful, for he disliked the use of dogs or ponies,
and hoped that motor traction would be the remedy.
He made trials, both in the Alps and in Norway, which
gave every hope of success, and three motor sledges were
taken out. One was lost in landing; the other two went
well on the surface of the barrier, and the system of
propulsion was quite satisfactory, but their use had to be
abandoned owing to the over-heating of the air-cooled
engines, a defect which could undoubtedly be remedied.
Captain Scott was quite on the right tack, and with
more experience, his idea of polar motors will hereafter
be made feasible, a consummation which was very dear
to his heart.
The financial position made a relief ship impossible,
and it was arranged that the Tevra Nova should land the
exploring party with their provisions and a suitable house
ready for erection, going back to New Zealand for the
winter and returning in the next navigable season.
The Admiralty were fairly liberal in their permission
for naval officers and men to join the Terra Nova,
There were four Lieutenants—Evans, Pennell, Campbell,
and Rennick. A young Lieutenant of the Indian Marine,
named Bowers, was also allowed to go, but in his case
the Indian Government was the reverse of liberal. Captain
Oates of the Inniskilling Dragoons was a volunteer, and
an invaluable acquisition. Two naval surgeons were
allowed to join, Dr Atkinson and Dr Levick. Dr Wilson
of the Discovery was chief of the scientific staff and a host
in himself. Besides the two Russians there were twelve
men to land, all naval. Of these, five were old Discoveries.
Lashly and Edgar Evans were Scott’s companions during
his great journey over the ice-cap. Crean and Williamson
were also thoroughly reliable men, the former having
been Captain Scott’s coxswain in the Victorzous.
With the most complete collection of scientific instru-
ments and appliances Captain Scott resolved to have the
largest and most efficient scientific staff that ever left
these shores. Instead of the two biologists of the
Discovery he took four, Dr Wilson, Mr Nelson, Mr Cherry
CH. LXiIT] Scot?s Last Expedition 491
Garrard, and Mr Lillie; instead of one geologist he took
three, Mr Griffith Taylor, Mr Debenham, and Mr Priestley,
one of them a specialist in physiography; instead of one
physicist he took two, Dr Simpson and Mr Wright ; besides
a photographer of great ability, Mr Ponting. A young
Sub-Lieutenant of the Norwegian navy, named Tryggve
Gron, came as a ski expert, Mr Day as motor engineer,
and Mr Meares in charge of the dogs.
The Terra Nova left the docks on June Ist, and arrived
at Stokes Bay on June 3rd, 1910. They were all cordially
received by the Commander-in-Chief at Portsmouth and
at Cardiff there was another enthusiastic reception.
During the voyage out the Terra Nova touched at Simon’s
Bay, Melbourne, and Lyttelton; large and very generous
subscriptions to the expedition being received from Cape
Colony, Australia, and New Zealand.
After a stay of a month at Lyttelton, where the ponies
and dogs were taken on board, and a valuable addition
was made to the executive officers in the person of Scott’s
brother-in-law, Wilfred Bruce, the Terra Nova finally
sailed for the Antarctic regions on November 2gth, rgro.
Three days had not passed before the explorers en-
countered a furious storm from the S.W., lasting from
December Ist to 3rd. The ship, hove to under a main
lower topsail, laboured heavily and big seas began to come
on board, The ponies suffered greatly, and Captain Oates
and Dr Atkinson worked incessantly throughout the gale,
dragging the poor beasts on to their legs again. The
solid water which came on board lifted the coal bags and
flung them against the rest of the deck cargo, acting like
battering rams and gradually loosening the lashings of the
petrol cases and forage bales. Soon the whole of the deck
cargo was in danger, and there was nothing for it but to
heave the coal bags overboard and re-lash the petrol cases.
But the seas were continually breaking over the crew,
and now and again they were completely submerged.
Worse was to come. It was reported that the pumps
were choked and that the water, steadily gaining, was now
over the stokehold plates. Every effort was being made
to keep the fires fed, but a considerable part of the water
on the upper deck found its way below. Then it was
discovered that the main engine pump was also choked.
492 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration (part
The water gained to the lower level of the boilers, and
the order had to be given to draw fires. The ship was
very deeply laden, and it did not need the addition of
much water to get her water-logged. As the water was
gaining and there were no pumps available, the only
resource left was an attempt at baling, yet the idea of
baling a ship out by hand seemed ludicrous. Nevertheless
all the officers and scientific staff fell to, working two
hours’ spells all day and night, passing up buckets of
water from hand to hand.
Captain Scott felt that, at all hazards, they must get
at the hand pump suctions, and ordered a hole to be made
in the steel bulkhead behind the boiler. All this time
the gale was raging as furiously as ever. About midnight
the hole through the bulkhead was completed, and Evans
and Bowers crawled through to the pump suctions and
found them choked with coal. This was got out, and the
pump on being tried again gave a good stream once more.
By morning the level of the water was brought under the
stokehold plates again. Very slowly the wind and sea
had been moderating and in the afternoon of December
3rd they were able to continue the voyage. Two ponies
had dropped never to rise again, with the minor losses of
ro tons of coal, 65 gallons of petrol, and a case of the
biologists’ spirits. The ship had been in great danger.
This terrible experience in its absorbing interest stands side
by side with Ross’s story of the collision among the icebergs.
On December oth the Terra Nova entered the pack in
65°5’S. and 178° E. There was a long detention, unlike
the fortunate voyage of the Discovery, and it was not
until December 30th that the ship was extricated in
71° 30’ S., having had to force her way through 370 miles
of ice. On January 3rd, rg11, Cape Crozier was sighted,
the ship entered M’Murdo Sound, and on the 4th she was
off the winter quarters at Cape Evans, 14 miles north of
the Discovery’s winter quarters. The landing was at once
commenced, In a week the house, stores, coals, animals,
and equipments were all on shore. In a fortnight the
house was built and habitable, and in three weeks every-
thing was ready for the depot journey.
One part of Captain Scott’s plan was that Lieut.
Campbell should explore King Edward VII Land with
A Tilted Berg, showing the old surface inclined to the left
Typical Bergs. Terra Nova in distance
CH, LXIIt] Scotts Last Expedition 493
Dr Levick, Mr Priestley the geologist, three men, and two
ponies. The Terra Nova, now commanded by Lieut.
Pennell, accordingly took the party with their house and
stores, leaving M’Murdo Sound on January 26th, but
unfortunately no landing could be found at King Edward
VII Land. Lieut. Pennell then took them to Balloon
Bay, where there is a landing on the barrier, but the place
was found to be already occupied by Amundsen’s party.
Campbell, in consequence, gave up the plan of landing
there, and returned to Cape Evans and left the ponies.
He then went on in the Terra Nova, intending to land at
Smith Inlet, or as near Cape North as possible. But once
more fortune was against him, the ice prevented the ship
from approaching the land, and the whole coast back to
Cape Adare was found to consist of inaccessible ice cliffs.
Ultimately the party were landed in Robertson Bay, where
they wintered. Sledging was attempted, but the ice near
the coast proved too rotten to be trustworthy, and no
exploring could be done in the direction of Cape North.
On January 8th, 1912, the Terra Nova arrived and took
the party on board, landing them again near Mt Melbourne
with six weeks’ sledging rations only. But grave misfor-
tune was in store for them. The ship was prevented by
dense pack from picking them up again and they were
forced to winter, living in an ice cave with little besides
penguins and seals for their food. These great privations
were met with the greatest fortitude and cheerfulness,
and in October they started with their sledge, reaching
Cape Evans safely November 7th, Ig12.
After landing Campbell’s party, Lieut. Pennell again
shaped a course to the westward, and discovered a long
line of new coast beyond Cape North, from 68° 30’ S. and
158° 15’ E. to 69° 50’ S. and 163° 29’ E. On March 8th
the Terra Nova was beset, and from March 2oth a S.W.
gale took her to Stewart Island. After being thoroughly
overhauled and repaired the ship was chartered by the
New Zealand Government to survey the channel between
the north point of the North Island and the Three Kings
Islands, 38 miles to the N.W. The survey occupied three
months, and Lieut. Rennick drew the resulting chart,
since published by the Admiralty. In the next winter
Lieut. Pennell conducted another survey for the New
494. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [partu
Zealand Government, this time of Admiralty Bay, the
chart being drawn by Lieut. Rennick. “It was a great
thing,” Pennell thought, “to have such long and con-
tinuous work for all hands during the winter.” Lieut.
Wilfred Bruce was a most valuable addition to the execu-
tive staff on board, and Mr Lillie was indefatigable as
a collector. Very valuable lines of deep sea soundings
were taken southwards from New Zealand, and a large bio-
logical collection was made. Indeed the Terra Nova made
no unimportant addition to the results of the expedition.
Captain Scott was meanwhile preparing for one of the
greatest feats in man-drawn sledge travelling that has
ever been achieved, comparable with the splendid journeys
of M’Clintock and Mecham. There was much to be done
and no time to lose. A great depét had to be laid out
during the autumn, a hundred and thirty miles to the
south. Scott started on January 25th from Cape Evans
with 12 men, 8 ponies, and 26 dogs, with 14 weeks’ food
and fuel (5385 Ib.), 3680 lb. of compressed fodder, 1400 lb.
of dog biscuit and 15 sacks of oats.
The journey was along the coast of Ross Island,
passing the well-remembered places and the great hut
at the Discovery's winter quarters. The first dep6t was
formed in 77° 55’, to the S.E. of Cape Armitage, called the
home depét. This was ‘Corner Camp.” On the rath
February the party passed Minna Bluff, and rested at
Bluff Camp; on the 15th the place for the final depot
was reached in 79° 28’ S., where 2181 lb. of provisions were
deposited. This was the “One-ton Depét.”
In returning, a short cut was attempted by Scott with
the dog teams nearer the coast, where the ice turned out
to be heavily crevassed. On the zoth February they
covered 35 miles. Next day they were about 12 miles
inshore from Corner Camp. The men were running by
the sledges. Suddenly Dr Wilson shouted ‘“‘ Hold on to
the sledge,” and as he spoke the whole team of dogs sank
through the snow down a crevasse, and hung by their
harness far down the abyss. Scott hauled the sledge clear
and anchored it. The dogs were howling dismally. Two
had dropped out of their harness and landed on a snow
bridge far below. Cherry Garrard brought the Alpine
rope they had with them; the sledge was unloaded, and
CH. LXIII] Scot?’s Last Expedition 495
run across the gap. The dogs were then hauled up two
by two until eleven of the thirteen were recovered, the
other two loose ones being on the snow bridge 65 ft.
down the chasm. Scott made a bowline in the Alpine
rope and was lowered down. He reached the bridge,
fastened the first dog to the rope, which was hauled up,
and then the second. Lastly he himself, with some effort,
was hauled to the surface. It was all the other three
could do, the cold being intense and their fingers badly
frost-bitten. Scott of course was in great danger, but
he had insisted upon going down. It was characteristic
of him that “he wanted to take such a good opportunity
of examining the sides of a crevasse.”’
A greater disaster overtook the ponies in the return
journey, coming from the Barrier on to the sea ice. It
suddenly broke up, forming lanes of water, and notwith-
standing every exertion to save them, two were lost on
the ice and others succumbed to the furious icy gales.
The year had been quite exceptional in this respect.
There had already been four furious southerly gales. It
was not until April 13th that Captain Scott returned to
Cape Evans.
The abode for the winter had been carefully planned.
The walls and roof had a double thickness of boarding,
with sea-weed on both sides of the frames. On the south
side Bowers built a long annex to contain spare clothing
and provisions for immediate use. On the north was the
stable, and a short distance away was a solid block of ice in
which two caverns were dug, one for a larder, the other
for differential magnetic instruments. Near this cavern
there was a hut for absolute magnetic observations, and
on a small hill above, on which was a flag-staff, were the
meteorological instruments.
The house, below the hill, was on a long stretch of bleak
sand, with many tons of provision cases ranged in neat
blocks in front of it. The interior was divided into two
rooms. ‘Two-thirds of the area was for the 16 officers and
members of the scientific staff, the other third for the
g men’. In the officers’ quarters there was a dark room,
+ These were Anton and Demetri, the two Russian dog-drivers, and
seven men of the Royal Navy :—Edgar Evans, Lashly, and Crean, who had
all been on the Discovery, and Keohane, Forde, Hooper, and Clissold, the
two latter respectively steward and cook.
496 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PART It
a space for the physicist and his instruments, a space for
charts, instruments, and chronometers, and on the sides
the 16 bed-places. Arrangements for light, warmth, and
cooking were very satisfactory. The ten surviving ponies
were made comfortable in their stables by the Russian
lads.
The last day of the sun was April 23rd. Throughout
the winter there was much to be done and many calcula-
tions to be made respecting the great journey. Everyone
was always busy and the daily exercising of the horses
was no simple task. Every Sunday divine service was
held. There were frequent lectures, generally on subjects
connected with Antarctic travelling or scientific work,
often illustrated, and always followed by a discussion.
So the winter passed, with the most perfect good fellow-
ship. The South Polar Times was again started under
the editorship of Cherry Garrard, well aided by Dr Wilson’s
admirable illustrations.
Dr Wilson was anxious to visit the emperor penguin
rookery in order to secure eggs of the bird at such a stage
as would furnish a series of early embryos by which alone
the particular points of interest in the development of the
bird could be worked out—this penguin being supposed
to be the nearest approach to the primitive form. The
journey entailed the risk of travelling in the winter and
in darkness, for the birds nest in the coldest season of
the year, early in July.
The party consisted of Dr Wilson, Lieut. Bowers,
and Cherry Garrard, with two sledges and provisions for
five weeks. They started on June 27th, 1911, and next
day passed round Cape Armitage, and turned in the
direction of Cape Crozier. At night the temperature was
—56° Fahr. On July 11th, off Mount Terror, the wind
from S.S.W. blowing a gale, brought the temperature up
in a most extraordinary way to + 7° Fahr., with heavy
snow-fall. On the 15th they got to a height overlooking
the barrier cliffs, with a magnificent view, the whole
range of pressure ridges at their feet, looking “‘as if
giants had been ploughing with ploughs that made
furrows fifty or sixty feet deep.” The Ross Sea was
completely frozen over, except an open lead along the
coast. On this height at about 800 ft. they built a stone
CH. LXIII| Scot?’s Last Expedition 497
hut. On the 19th they made an unsuccessful attempt to
descend to the rookery and next day the hut was finished.
Then at last they effected a descent. Six eggs were
collected and three birds were killed and skinned. Re-
turning, the ascent was extremely difficult and hazardous.
A heavy gale was blowing on the 22nd from S.S.W. and
the tent was blown clean away. They took refuge in the
hut, but next day the force of wind had risen to a storm,
and the roof of the hut was blown away. At last the
wind went down and they all started in search of the
tent, which Bowers found a quarter of a mile from the
place where it had been pitched, but fortunately un-
damaged. Without the tent it is doubtful whether any
of them would have survived. The return journey in
darkness and intense cold was terrible, the bags were
saturated and hard frozen. Hut Point was reached on
the last day of July, and the home at Cape Evans on
August Ist.
Scott wrote :—
“The Cape Crozier party returned after enduring for five weeks the
hardest conditions on record. It forms one of the most gallant stories
in polar history. That man should wander forth in the depth of a
polar winter to face the most dismal cold and the fiercest gales in dark-
ness is something new; that they’should have persisted in their efforts
in spite of every adversity for five full weeks, is heroic. It makes a
tale for our generation which I hope will not be lost in the telling.”
From that time all was preparation and calculation
for the great journey. The ponies were to take them to
the foot of the glacier, where they would be killed for
fresh food; the dog teams were also to go thus far, as far
as they could be taken without cruelty. The hope that
the motor sledges would be useful auxiliaries was vain.
Scott had looked forward to their revolutionizing polar
traction, but was doomed to disappointment.
From the foot of the glacier to the Pole, a distance of
450 miles, the extended party would be able to reach their
goal by the help of two limited parties, making three
parties of four men each to start. Six depdts were to
be placed at intervals. The most careful calculations
were made about the quantity in each depét and the
quantity to be taken by each returning party, and it
was found in practice that every detail of equipment was
right.
M.I. 32
498 <Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [PARTI
Before starting, Captain Scott, with Dr Simpson,
Bowers, and Edgar Evans went for a fortnight on what
he called a remarkably pleasant and instructive spring
journey. The party went a long way up the Ferrar
Glacier, and Scott was able to measure the movement of
the glacier, finding it to be at the rate of 24 to 32 feet in
74 months,
On the rst November, rg11, Captain Scott started on
his last great journey. The ponies were in fine form, due
to the care of Captain Oates through the winter. They
drew 450 lb. each. On the 15th “One-ton Depdt”’ was
reached, 130 miles from Cape Evans. On arriving at the
entrance to the Beardmore Glacier the ponies were shot
for fresh food. They had done their work well. Meares
and the dog teams returned home.
From December 5th to the goth a furious gale was
blowing with heavy snow-fall. This most unfortunate
storm not only caused serious delay, but also filled the
lower part of the glacier ravine with soft snow, retarding
progress and causing awful toil.
The three final units of four were :—
Scott Commander Evans Atkinson
Wilson Bowers Wright
Oates Crean Cherry Garrard
KE, Evans Lashly Keohane
The ascent was hard work, and falls down crevasses
to the length of the harness were quite common, but on
the 22nd December the summit was reached at 7100 ft.
in 85° 13'S., 161° 55’ E. and here the “Upper Glacier
Depot” was formed. At this point Atkinson, Wright,
Cherry Garrard, and Keohane bade farewell—alas! a
long farewell—to their beloved chief, and returned.
Pushing steadily on, the two remaining parties reached
86° 55’ 47” S. and formed another depét, consisting of a
week’s provisions for both units. It was named “Three-
Degree Depot.” On January 2nd, 1912, the camp was
in 87° 32'S. Long. 160° 40’ E., and 9600 ft. above the
sea. Here Bowers joined the extended party, raising the
number to five. The last limited party, consisting of
Commander Evans, Crean, and Lashly, bade farewell
and set out on the return journey. Evans was attacked
by scurvy, became rapidly worse, and near Corner Camp
CH. LXIIT] Scott's Last Expedition 499
was unable to go further. Lashly remained to nurse him,
while Crean went off alone for help. Fortunately Dr
Atkinson was at Hut Point and came at once to the
rescue. Evans was brought safely down, and got on
board the Terra Nova}.
Scott, with his four gallant companions, was left
within 140 miles of the South Pole, with provisions for a
month, and depdts at proper intervals in their rear.
1 For their courageous services in this affair Lashly and Crean received
the Albert Medal.
32-2
CHAPTER LXIV
CAPTAIN SCOTT’S LAST EXPEDITION
The End
Scott and his companions could now easily reach their
goal. On the 4th January they were 10,280 ft. above the
sea, the soft snow giving them very heavy work. They
were still ascending slightly, reaching 10,320 ft. on the
5th, on the 6th 10,470 ft., and on the 7th 10,570 ft.
“Tt is quite impossible,” wrote Scott, “to speak too highly of my
companions. Wilson ever on the look-out to alleviate the small pains
and troubles incidental to the work, ever thinking of some fresh
expedient to help the camp life, tough as steel on the traces, never
wavering from start to finish. Evans a giant worker with a really
remarkable head-piece. It is only now I realize how much has been
due to him. Little Bowers remains a marvel—he is thoroughly
enjoying himself. He has not made a single mistake in making up the
depéts, and at all times knows exactly how we stand. Nothing comes
amiss to him, and no work is too hard. Oates goes hard the whole
time, and does his share of camp work.”
The highest point had now been passed and they were
descending again. On the 15th at 89° 26'57"5S. the
height was only 9920 ft. On the 16th, still descending,
they were in 89° 42'S. Scott had been for some time
apprehensive of the possibility of the Norwegian expedi-
tion under Amundsen having forestalled them. The doubt
was now to resolve itself into certainty. In the afternoon
march Bowers’ keen eyes detected an unusual object in
the distance, which proved to be a black flag tied to a
sledge-bearer. Around were the remains of a camp and
tracks of men and dogs, and it was only too evident that
the Norwegians had succeeded in their endeavour. Two
days later Scott’s party arrived at the tent left by
Amundsen, and found his record dated December 16th,
just a month previously. It wasa terrible disappointment
and no doubt was not without its depressing effect on
their spirits on the homeward journey. The weather,
moreover, was of an unusually trying character, a strong
CH. LXIv| Scott?’s Last Expedition 501
wind blowing with the thermometer at — 22° Fahr. and
a curious damp cold feeling in the air. “This is an awful
place,” writes Scott, ‘and terrible enough for us to have
laboured to it without the reward of priority.”
A cairn was built on the South Pole, and the Union
Jack was hoisted. The altitude was 9500 ft. a descent
of rooo ft. from 88° S.
On the 19th January the return march was com-
menced, and they had a very hard time before them.
Oates was feeling the cold more than the others, and
Evans was never the same man after leaving the Pole,
These were danger signals; both got frost-bitten so easily.
There seems to be nothing in the Arctic regions to be
compared with the wonderful storm-tossed sastvugt which
here so perplexed and delayed them. On January 31 the
Three-Degree Depét was reached. The oth February
was a grand day. They steered for a moraine under
Mount Buckley, which proved so interesting that Scott
determined to spend the day there geologising. Above
them rose a perpendicular cliff of sandstone, weathering
rapidly and carrying veritable coal seams. Wilson found
several plant impressions, one a piece of coal with beauti-
fully-traced leaves in layers. There were some excellently
preserved impressions of thick stems, showing cellular
structure. Altogether they had a most interesting after-
noon, “and the relief of being out of the wind and in
a warmer temperature is inexpressible.’” Some 35 lb.
weight of fossils were taken on the sledge. This discovery
throws most important light on the geological history of
Antarctica.
The return journey was continued. On February
16th poor Evans had quite collapsed in mind and body.
He caused much delay and the rest felt that they were in
a desperate position with a sick man on their hands at
such a distance from home. Here was the risk which
could not be foreseen, and which seemed so unlikely to
arise. All that the very best arrangement can possibly
do is to leave a margin for detentions. That margin had
been overpassed, and there was danger. The arrange-
ments were admirable, the depots fairly easily found, but
their contents’ were not calculated for such a long deten-
tion.
502. Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [parti
Evans died in the tent on February 17th, a sad and
unexpected end for such a fine and useful hand, and one
supposed to be the strongest of the party. On February
18th they had reached the Lower Glacier Depot and were
entering upon the march over the barrier ice. They began
to use the horse meat.
The survivors encountered most extraordinary, indeed
for the time of year quite abnormal, degrees of cold, and
they were retarded by unusually bad surface. They reached
the Middle Barrier Depét on the 2nd March but found a
shortage of oil, due to a leak, leaving hardly sufficient to
take them to the next depét. The temperature was — 40°.
Captain Oates disclosed the state of his feet, which were
most seriously frost-bitten. Every circumstance was
against them, and the danger was rapidly increasing.
The surface continued terrible and retarded them fatally.
“Amongst ourselves,” wrote Scott, ““we are unendingly
cheerful, but what each man feels in his heart I can only
guess.’ By the 6th Oates was unable to pull, and suffer-
ing great pain. He got worse and worse; but was always
cheery, and never made a complaint. On the 17th the
end came. It was blowing a gale. He said “I am just
going outside and may be some time.’’ He knew they
would never leave him and that he was increasing their
danger. He nobly resolved to sacrifice himself. “It was
the act of a brave man and an English gentleman. We
all hope to meet the end in a similar spirit, and assuredly
the end is not far.” Hope was departing. On Sunday
March 21st they were only eleven miles from One-ton
Depot, getting more and more unequal to the work.
Yet they had brought the great extra weight of 35 Ib. of
fossils all the way, a monument to the heroism of the
gallant discoverers. Scott was now in as bad case as
Oates had been. The tent was pitched, Wilson and
Bowers intending to go to the depét and back for fuel.
But a furious gale, rendering the journey impossible, blew
for several days from S.W. This was the final blow. Scott
wrote letters to relations and friends until death caused
his pencil to drop from his hand. Every sentence was
intended to give them consolation and comfort. He also
left a touching appeal to his countrymen. He died as he
had lived, one of the most beautiful characters in our
CH. LXIV] Scott's Last Expedition 503
generation. When found by the search party Wilson and
Bowers lay with their sleeping-bags closed over their
heads, in the attitude of sleep. Scott had died later.
The flaps of his sleeping-bag were thrown back. The
little wallet containing his note-books was under his
shoulder, and one arm was flung across Wilson’s body.
The search party, led by Dr Atkinson, started on the
30th of October, 1912. The excellent mules had arrived
on board the Terra Nova in the spring. Seven mules and
eight men set out from Hut Point, with Wright in
command, two dog teams following with Dr Atkinson,
Cherry Garrard, and Demetrit.
On the morning of the 1zth November, 1912, they
found the tent. It was pitched well and had withstood
the furious gales. Each man recognised the bodies. All
their gear was recovered, and the sledge was dug out with
their belongings and the precious fossils. Then the bodies
were covered with the outer tent and the burial service
was read. A mighty cairn was built above them, and it
was surmounted by a cross made out of two skis. On
either side two sledges were up-ended and fixed firmly in
the snow. Between the eastern sledge and the cairn a
bamboo was placed containing a metal cylinder and the
following inscription :—
This cross and cairn were erected overthe bodies of Captain Scott, R.N.,
Dr Wilson, M.B., and Lieut. Bowers, R.I.M. a slight token to perpetuate
their successful and gallant attempt to reach the Pole. This they did
on January 17th, 1912. Inclement weather with lack of fuel was the
cause of their death. Also to commemorate their two gallant comrades,
Captain Oates of the Inniskilling Dragoons, who walked to his death
to save his comrades about eighteen miles south of this position; and
Seaman Edgar Evans, who died at the foot of the glacier.
“The Lord gave and the Lord taketh away, blessed be the name of
the Lord.”
It was signed by all the members of the party. They
then marched south to search for the body of Captain
Oates; but “the kindly snow had covered the body,
giving it a fitting burial.’’ Here, as near the site as they
could judge, they built another cairn to his memory,
placing on it a small cross and the following record :—
1 Atkinson, Wright, Cherry Garrard, Gran, Lashly, Crean, Williamson,
Nelson, Archer, Hooper, Keohane, and Demetri, formed the search party.
504 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Ppartu
Heréabouts died a very gallant gentleman, Captain Oates of the
Inniskilling Dragoons. In March rg1z, returning from the Pole, he
walked willingly to his death to try and save his comrades, beset by
hardships. This note is left by the Relief Expedition of 1912.
It was signed by Dr Atkinson and Mr Cherry Garrard.
Returning they bade a’ final farewell to their lost friends.
Dr Atkinson wrote :—
There, alone in their greatness, they will lie without change or
bodily decay, with the most fitting tomb in the world above them.
The results of Captain Scott’s expedition are of great
importance. He arranged that the geologists should make
a thorough geological survey of the region from Granite
Harbour to Koettlitz Glacier, extending thirty miles
inland where possible. This was done, and they also
made a very interesting ascent to the crater of Mount
Erebus, an account of which was written by Mr Priestley.
The results in the other branches of science were of no
less importance, and furnish a splendid and convincing
answer to those who question the use of polar expeditions.
But of far greater service are the examples set to their
countrymen by the lost heroes, and the experience gained
by the young naval officers of the expedition.
The dying appeal of Captain Scott met with a prompt
response. Seldom has the nation, both at home and
beyond seas, been so deeply touched. On February 14th,
1913, there was a memorial service at St Paul’s at which
the King and the Queen Mother were present. Scott’s
widow was given the rank to which her heroic husband
would have been raised. An appeal for funds to meet all
demands received a most generous and ample response.
The widows and orphans were suitably provided for, all
the liabilities of the expedition were met, a bounty was
given to the members of the expedition, provision was
made for the publication of results, and a large sum was
left for memorials.
In the whole range of polar history there is no greater
name than that of Robert Falcon Scott. A life of devotion
to duty, latterly of devotion to scientific discovery, was
closed by a heroic and glorious death. A man with rare
gifts both of head and heart, those gifts were nobly used
through lifé, and were never more prominent than in his
last fatal march and in the hour of death.
CHAPTER LXV
REMAINING ANTARCTIC WORK
THE great object of Antarctic exploration is to dis-
cover the outline of the Antarctic continent, and to study
its physiography so far as the great ice-cap will admit of
such researches. Among those who took an intelligent
interest in this important question was the late Duke of
Argyll’s father, who had the firmest grasp of the subject
and the deepest insight. His view was that our efforts
should be directed to discovering the physiography of this
continental land previous to its being almost entirely
concealed by the ice-cap. In that way alone—combined
with series of deep sea soundings radiating from the
shores of Antarctica to lands to the north—could its
geological history, and possible former connection with
other lands, be ascertained. Impressed with these views,
we saw that those coasts must be sought where the
mountains are more or less clear of the assumed ice-cap.
The northern coasts forming the eastern half of the
Victoria and all the Enderby Quadrant appeared to be
ice cliffs only, and therefore unsuited. It was evident that
coasts and mountains with an eastern aspect would alone
enable us to obtain the desired knowledge. There are
two such eastern coasts. These are the western side of
the Ross Sea facing east, and the western side of the
Weddell Sea, the coast of Graham Land facing east.
Victoria Land was selected for the first attempt, and
a grand result was achieved by Captain Scott in his
two expeditions. The great Victorian chain of mountains
was traced from the Antarctic Circle to the apex of the
quadrant, a distance of 1200 miles. The volcanic region
of Ross Island was thoroughly explored. The basaltic
irruptions were observed, together with the primitive
rocks; the great unaltered formation now known as the
‘“Beacon Sandstone’”’ was discovered, the movements and
character of its glaciers were noted, a complete geological
506 §=6Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [Part u
survey was made from Granite Harbour to Koettlitz
Glacier, and the peaks were measured. To crown all,
Captain Scott and Dr Wilson made a large collection of
the fossil flora which established the geological period of
the rock formation. These fossils weighed 35 lb., but
though worn out, and with strength failing fast, the
gallant explorers would not leave them, but dragged these
records, until they died. There is no more glorious and
more touching event in the whole range of polar history.
Captain Scott observed that the Victorian mountains
turned in the direction of Graham Land, and this con-
clusion now has to be proved. A branch seems to run
down to the coast and to terminate in the heights of
King Edward VII Land, thus enclosing the vast bay
filled with Mr Ferrar’s “Ross piedmont.” It would not
be surprising to find a minor range branching off to
Enderby Land, which Biscoe described as mountainous.
The land and islands with an eastern aspect on the
other side of Antarctica were partly explored by Captain
Larsen, who made an important voyage down the east
coast of Graham Land, and the fossil remains have been
collected and described by Nordenskidld and Gunnar
Andersson. Next to Captain Scott’s great discoveries, the
work of the Swedes has thrown most light on the former
history of Antarctica.
There is something very fascinating in considering
the analogy between the Ross and Weddell Seas and their
shores on opposite sides of Antarctica. The Victorian
Mountains on one side match the Graham Land mountains
on the other. The interest is increased by the probability
that they form one chain, and by the discovery that
there are volcanic rocks peculiar to the Andes which have
been found in Graham Land. Then there are the enor-
mous icebergs in both seas pointing to the need for the
further study of the wonderful ice-cap which conceals so
much of Antarctica from our knowledge.
The Antarctic ice-cap was discovered and explored by
Captain Scott, who penetrated into its solitudes for two
hundred miles from the mountain range. Dr Mawson
has also examined it from another direction. There is
little or no interest in travelling over its monotonous
surface, but numerous borings would reveal its depth and
CH. LXxv] Remaining Antarctic Work 507
solid contents, as suggested by the late Sir John Murray.
The greatest interest connected with the Antarctic ice-
cap is to be found in the study of its glaciers, and of its
edges, possibly mighty cliffs like the Ross piedmont,
whence the vast icebergs are discharged.
The most important geographical discoveries which
remain to be revealed in the Antarctic regions are the
coasts and interiors of the Weddell and Ross Quadrants.
A great part of the eastern side of Graham Land is
still undiscovered, and it is not known whether it is a
peninsula or anisland. A plan for the exploration of this
important area was ably sketched out by Lieut. Barne,
but nothing has yet been done. The continuation of the
Victorian chain of mountains possibly to Graham Land,
800 miles in length, likewise calls for investigation as a
part entirely unknown. An ancient connection between
Antarctica and South America may be revealed, when
the warm current flowing south down the east side of the
latter continent was not diverted but flowed directly
into the far south. But these are but a tithe of the
problems which Antarctica still offers. There is the
enterprise of crossing the mountains to ascertain the
character of the much smaller section of the continent in
the Ross Quadrant; there is the survey of the southern
part of Graham Land; the exploration of the coast to the
eastward; the problem of the origins of the great icebergs.
The Weddell Quadrant calls for an immense amount of
geographical and other scientific work, which would give
full occupation for more than one expedition.
In the Ross Quadrant there is a coast line of I100
miles in extent to be discovered. Captain Scott’s work
on King Edward VII Land on one side, Alexander and
Charcot Lands on the other, are the boundary posts to
this undiscovered Edwardian coast. All we know is that
Captain Cook saw land in 71°S., that Bellingshausen
sighted Peter Island a little further to the east, and that
the Belgian expedition wintered over the continental
shelf in about 71° S. The land is probably not a hundred
miles further south. The ice-pack floats north from the
coast during the navigable season, and in that case a
ship might navigate along the Edwardian coast. It is
possible that there may be one or more deep indentations,
508 Arctic and Antarctic Exploration [partu
like the Ross Sea, when there would be a coast or coasts
facing east whose exploration would throw further
important light on the history of Antarctica.
Finally, in the Enderby Quadrant there is the
“Challenger Gap” to be explored, so as to complete an
examination of the region from Gaussberg to Kempe
Land.
Fixed stations for meteorological, magnetic, and tidal
observations ought to be established to carry out this
excellent and useful work within the Antarctic Circle
during a course of years, similar to that which Captain
Scott achieved in M’Murdo Sound during four years. In
no other part of the Arctic or Antarctic regions have
observations been taken in one place for so long a time.
But they are needed on other spots all round Antarctica.
There are many true lovers of geographical exploration
for its own sake in the present generation, who look upon
achievement as its own reward. We may, therefore,
hope that the great work initiated by the Societies with
such splendid results will be renewed by successors to
Scott and Wilson, and that they will again and again
raise the standard of duty and useful, if perilous, achieve-
ment. For such men there is a note of encouragement
and sympathy deep down in the hearts of all true Britons.
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33
M. I.
BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POLAR VOYAGES
AND TRAVELS
[Limited to narratives of general interest, no attempt being made to include
special reports and memoirs on scientific results. ]
ABRUZZI, DUKE OF THE. Farther North than Nansen; being the voyage of
the Polar Stay. Illustrations. La. 8°. 1901.
AMUNDSEN, ROALD. The North-West Passage; being the record of a voyage
of exploration of the Ship Gjda, 1903-1907, 2 vols. Maps and illus-
trations. 8°. 1908.
Back, Sir G. Narrative of the Arctic Land Expedition to the mouth of
the Great Fish River...in 1833-35. Map and illustrations. 8°. 1836.
BaFFINn, WILLIAM. The Voyages of W. B., 1612-22. Ed. by Sir Clements
R. Markham. (Hakluyt Society Publication, No. 63.) Maps and
illustrations. 8°, 188r.
Barents, WILLEM. The Three Voyages of W. B. to the Arctic Regions in
1594-96. By Gerrit de Veer. Ed. by Lieut. Koolemans Beynen.
(Hakluyt Society Publication, No. 54.) 2nd ed. Maps and illustrations.
8°. 1876.
—— Reizen van W. B., Jacob van Heemskerck, Jan Corneliz Rijp, en
Anderen...verhaald door Gerrit de Veer, uitgeg. door S. P. L’Honoré
Naber. (Werken uitgeg. door De Linschoten Vereeniging, xrv, xv.)
2 vols. Maps and illustrations. La. 8°, The Hague, r9r7,
Barrow, Str JOHN. Chronological History of Voyages into the Arctic
Regions.... Map, 8°. 1818.
Voyages of Discovery and Research within the Arctic Regions, from
the year 1818 to the Present Time.... Maps and portraits, 8°, 1846.
BEEcuEy, Capt. F. W. Voyage of Discovery towards the North Pole,
performed in H.M.SS. Dorothea and Trent, 1818. Map and illustrations.
8°. 1843.
BELCHER, Sir Epwarp. The Last of the Arctic Voyages; being a narrative
of the Expedition in H.M.S. Assistance...1852~-54. 2 vols, Maps and
illustrations. La. 8°. 1855.
BERNIER, Capt. J. E. Report on the Dominion Government Expedition
to Arctic Lands...on board the C.G.S. Arctic, 1906-1907. Map and
illustrations. La. 8°. Ottawa, 1909.
Curisty, MILLER. See Foxe, Luxe.
COLLINSON, SiR RicHarp. Journal of H.M.S. Enterprise, on the Expedition
in search of Sir John Franklin’s Ships by Behring Strait, 1850-55....
Maps and illustrations, 8°. 1889.
Conway, Srr W. M. and others, The First Crossing of Spitsbergen. Maps
and illustrations. La. 8°, 1897.
No Man’s Land: a History of Spitsbergen.... Maps and illustrations.
La, 8°, Cambridge, 1906.
Davis, Joun. The Voyages and Works of J. D. the Navigator. Ed. by
Sir A. H. Markham. (Hakluyt Society Publication, No. 59.) Maps
and illustrations. 8°. 1880,
Dr Lone, Grorcre W. The Voyage of the Jeanmette.... Ed. by Emma De
Long. 2 vols. Maps and illustrations. 1883.
Etytis, HENRY. Voyage to Hudson’s Bay...in 1746-47. Maps and illustra-
tions. 8°. 1748.
Bibliography 515
Fiara, A. Fighting the Polar Ice, Map and illustrations. La, 8°. 1907,
Fox, Capr, Luxe. North-west Fox; or, Fox from the North-west Passage...
Maps and diagram. sm. 4°. 1635.
The Voyages of Capt. Luke Fox and Capt. Thomas James in search
of a N.W. Passage, With narratives of the earlier North-west voyages
of Frobisher, Davis, Weymouth, Hall, Knight, Hudson, Button,
Gibbons, Bylot, Baffin, Hawkridge, and others. Ed. by Miller Christy.
(Hakluyt Society Publications, Nos. 88, 89.) 2 vols. Maps and illustra-
tions. 8°. 1894.
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN, Narrative of a Journey to the Shores of the Polar
Sea, in 1819-22. Maps and illustrations. 4°. 1823.
Narrative of a Second Expedition...1825, 1826 and 1827. Maps and
illustrations. 4°. 1828.
FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN. The Three Voyages of Sir M. F..... By George
Best. Ed. by Sir R. Collinson, (Hakluyt Society Publication, No. 38.)
Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1867.
GREELY, Gen. ApoLpuus W. Three Years of Arctic Service; an account of
the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition of 1881-84. 2 vols. Maps and
illustrations. La. 8°. 1886.
Handbook of Polar Discoveries. 4th ed. Maps. 8°. 1910.
Haxtuyt, Ricuarp. The Principal Navigations...of the English Nation....
3 vols. Sm. Folio, 1599-1600.
[Also reprint in 12 vols. 8°. Glasgow, 1903-1905. |
HALL, Cuartes, F. Narrative of the Second Arctic Expedition...to
Repulse Bay, etc., etc., 1864-69. Ed. by J. E. Nourse. Maps and
illustrations. 4°. Washington, 1879.
Narrative of the North Polar Expedition, U.S. Ship Polaris.... Ed.
by Rear-Adm. C, F. Davis. Maps and illustrations. 4°. Washington,
1876,
ae Isaac I. The Open Polar Sea:...Voyage of Discovery towards the
North Pole in the Schooner United States. Maps and illustrations. 8°.
1867.
HEEMSKERCK. See BARENTS.
Hupson, Henry. H. H. the Navigator. Original Documents...,Collected...
by G. M. Aster. (Hakluyt Society Publication, No. 27.) Maps. 8°.
1860.
Jackson, FREDERICK GEorGE. A Thousand Days in the Arctic, 2 vols.
Maps. La. 8°, 1899.
JAMEs, Capt, THomas. The Strange and dangerous Voyage of, in his
intended discovery of the North-west Passage into the South Sea....
Map. Sm. 4°. 1633.
See Fox, Luxe.
Jounson, Henry. The Life and Voyages of Joseph Wiggins. Maps and
illustrations. 8°, 1907.
Kane, Evisua Kent. The U.S. Grinnell Expedition in search of Sir John
Franklin. Map and illustrations. New York, 1853.
—— Arctic Explorations: The Second Grinnell Expedition....1853-55.
2 vols. Maps and illustrations. 8°. Philadelphia, 1856.
KoLpEwey, Karv. The German Arctic Expedition of 1869-70. [Translated
from the German.] Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1874.
KoTzEBUE, Orro von. A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sea and
Beering’s Straits. 3 vols. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1821.
Ltrker, Friepricu. Viermalige Reise durch das n6rdl, Eismeer...1821—24.
{From the Russian.] 2 vols, Map (separate). 8°. Berlin, 1835.
M’Ciintock, Sir Leopotp, The Voyage of the Fox in the Arctic Seas.
[Various eds.] Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1859, etc.
M’Crure, Carr. Ropert C. M. See OSBORN, SHERARD,
Marxuam, Apm. Str ALBERT H. The Great Frozen Sea....Voyage of the
Alert. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 18784
332
516 Bibliography
MARKHAM, S1R CLEMENTS R. See BAPFIN.
MIDDLETON, CHRISTOPHER. Attempts made for the Discovery of a passage
into the South Seas by the North-west.... (In Harris’s Collection of
Voyages, vol. 2, 1748.)
MIKKELSEN, Ernar. Conquering the Arctic Ice. Maps and illustrations.
8°. 1909.
Lost in the Arctic,...Alabama Expedition, 1909-12. Maps and
illustrations, La. 8°. 1913.
MuLcGRAVE, Lorp. See PHIpps.
MUtiier, G. F. Voyages et Découvertes faites par les Russes le long des
Cétes de la Mer Glaciale, 2 vols. Map. Sm. 8°. Amsterdam, 1766.
Munk, Jens, and others. Danish Arctic Expeditions, 1605-20. Ed. by
C, C. A. Gosch, 2 vols. (Vol. 2: The Expedition of Capt. Jens Munk
to Hudson’s Bay...in 1619-20.) (Hakluyt Society Publications, Nos.
96, 97.) Maps and illustrvations. 8°. 1897.
Nansen, Friptjor. The First Crossing of Greenland. 2 vols. Maps and
illustrations. 8°. 1890.
Farthest North....Voyage of Exploration of the Ship Fram, 1893-96.
2 vols. Maps and illustrations. La. 8°. 1897.
In Northern Mists: Arctic Exploration in early times. 2 vols. Maps
and illustrations. La, 8°. I91t.
NAres, SIRGEORGE. Narrative of a voyage to the Polar Sea during 1875-76...
2 vols. Maps and illusivations. 1878.
Natworst, A. G. Tva Somrar i Norra Ishafvet. 2 vols. M aps and illustra-
tzons. Stockholm, 1900.
NORDENSKIOLD, Baron A. E. The Voyage of the Vega round Asia and
Europe. 2 vols. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 188t.
OsBORN, CAPT. SHERARD. The Discovery of the North-west Passage by
H.M.S. Investigator, by Capt. R. M’Clure, 1850-54. Ed. by Comm. S.
Osborn. Map and illustrations. 8°. 1856.
Parry, ApM. Sir W. E. Journal of a voyage for the Discovery of a N.W.
Passage...in 1819-20. Maps and illustvations. 4°. 1821.
Journal of a Second Voyage...in 1821-23. Maps and illustrations.
Appendix to same. JI/lusivations. 4°. 1824.
Journal of a Third Voyage...in 1824-25. Maps and illustrations. 4°.
1826.
Narrative of an Attempt to reach the North Pole...in 1827. Maps
and ilustvations. 4°. 1828.
Paver, Jutrus von. New Lands within the Arctic Circle....Discoveries of
the Tegetthoff, 1872-74. 2 vols. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1876.
Peary, Ropert Epwin. Northward over the ‘Great Ice.’ 2 vols. Maps
and illusivations. 8°, 1898.
Nearest the Pole. Maps and illustrations. La, 8°, 1907.
The North Pole. Map and illustvations. La. 8°, tgto.
Purprs, CAPT. CONSTANTINE JOHN (Afterwards Lorp Mutcrave). A
Voyage towards the North Pole...1773, Maps and illustrations. 4°.
I
Bones SAMUEL. Purchas his Pilgrimes. 4 vols. Maps and illustrations.
Folio. 1625.
Raz, Dr Joun. Narrative of an Expedition to the Shores of the Arctic
Sea in 1846 and 1847. Maps. 8°. 1850.
Ross, Str JOHN. Voyage of Discovery in H.M. Ships Isabella and Alexander.
Maps and illustrations. 4°. 18109.
Narrative of a Second Voyage in search of a N.W. Passage...including
the reports of Capt. J. C. Ross. Maps and illustrations. 4°. Appendix
to same. Illustrations. 4°. 1835.
SVERDRUP, Otro. New Land. Four Years in the Arctic Regions. (Trans-
lated from the Norwegian.) 2 vols, Maps and illustrations. La, 8°.
1904.
Bibliography 517
VEER, GERRIT DE. See BARENTS.
Wiaains, JOSEPH. See JoHNSON, HENRY.
Woop, Carr. J. Attempt to discover a North-east Passage to China and
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WRANGEL, FERDINAND von, Narrative of an Expedition to the Polar Sea
in 1820-23. Ed. by Major E, Sabine. [From the German.] Map. 8°.
1840.
Youn, Str ALLEN. Cruise of the Pandora. Map and illustrations. 8°, 1876.
Il. Anrarcric
AMUNDSEN, Roatp. The South Pole....Norwegian Antarctic Expedition
in the Fram, 1910-12. 2 vols. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1912.
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BELLINGSHAUSEN, F. G. Two Voyages of Exploration in the Antarctic
Ocean,..in the Corvettes Vostok and Mirnyi. 2 vols. and Atlas. [In
Russian.] 4°, Atlas, folio. St Petersburg, 1831.
[Also abridged German translation by Gravelius, Leipzig, 1902.]
Bernaccui, Louts. To the South Polar Regions. Maps and illustrations.
8°, Igor.
BoRCHGREVINK, CARSTENS EGEBERG. First on the Antarctic Continent....
British Antarctic Expedition, 1898-1900. Maps and illustrations. 8°.
1901.
[Brown, R. N. Rupmose, R. C. Mossman, and J. H. Harvie Prrie.] The
Voyage of the Scotia. Maps and illustrations. 8°. 1906.
Burt, H. J. The Cruise of the Antarctic to the South Polar Regions.
Illustrated. 8°. 1896.
Burn Murvocn, W. G. From Edinburgh to the Antarctic. An Artist’s
Notes and Sketches during the Dundee Antarctic Expedition of 1892—
93. Chapter by W. S. Bruce. Map and illustrations. 8°. 1894.
Cuarcot, JEAN B, Journal del’Expédition Antarctique Frangaise, 1903-05.
Le Francais au Pole Sud. Map and illustrations. La, 8°. Paris
1906.
cn Pourquoi Pas? dans l’Antarctique...1908-10. Map and illustra-
tions, La. 8°. Paris, roto.
Cook, James. A Voyage towards the South Pole and Round the World.
3 vols. Maps and illustrations. 4°. 1777.
DRYGALSKI, Ertca von. Zum Kontinent des eisigen Siidens, Deutsche
Siidpolarexpedition...rg01-1903. Maps and illustrations. 4°. Berlin,
1904.
TAREE, Epmunp. Voyages round the World, with...Voyages to the
South Seas, etc., etc. Illusivated. 8°. 1834.
GrerLAcir, ADRIEN DE, Voyage de la Belgica. Quinze Mois dans 1’Ant-
arctique. Map and illustrations. La. 8°, Paris and Brussels, 1902.
Mawson, Str Douatas. The Home of the Blizzard. Story of the Australasian
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See SHACKLETON,
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Southern and Antarctic Regions during the years 1839-43. 2 vols.
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years 1822-24.... Maps and illustvations. 8°. 1825. Second ed. 1827.
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5 vols. and Atlas. Maps and illustrations. La. 8°. Philadelphia, 1845.
INDEX
Abernethy, Thomas, 233, 251, 265,
413
Abruzzi, Duke of, attempts to reach
the Pole, 351
Active, 431
Adam of Bremen, chronicles visit of
Norsemen to Greenland, 38
Adams, Lieut. J. B., 478, 479
— William, 390
Adelaide Island, 432, 442
Adélie Land, 407, 409, 477, 487
Admiralty Range, 415
Advance, 252, 298 et seq.
Adventure, 394
Aid, 86
Akbar, 223
Akuli Gulf, 230 et seq., 235
Alabama, 376; loss of, 378
Aldrich, Admiral Pelham, 258 ¢ seq.,
304, 307, 428, 446
Alert, 303 et seq., 312, 313
Aleutian Islands discovered, 178
Alexander, 198, 201, 202
Alexander Island, 434
— Land, 397, 442
Alfland, 33
Alfred, King, translates Ovosius, 33
Alten Fjord, 317
Altitudes, Antarctic, 473, 480, 484,
485, 500, 501
— in Greenland, 332, 333, 335, 336,
338, 381
Ambassador, Russian, visits Eng-
land, 62
Amdrup, Lieut. G., 367, 368
Ameralik Fjord, 336
America, North, coast line of, sur-
veyed by Franklin, 222; by Back,
228; by Dease and Simpson, 228
American Antarcticexpeditions, 400,
408
— Arctic Coast, 18; birds of, 18;
fauna and flora of, 18
Amsterdam Island, 360
Amundsen, Roald, undertakes N.W.
Passage, 314 ef seg.; winters in
King William Land, 314; serves in
the Belgian Expedition, 434; his
Antarctic expedition, 482 et seq.;
meets Scott’s party, 493; reaches
the South Pole, 485
Andersson, Gunnar, 436, 439
Andrée, 344
Andromache, 398, 400
Angekoks, 23; Greenland, 366
Angmagsalik, 365 et seq., 381
Angrim stones, 53
Anian, Strait of, 82
Anjou, Admiral, surveys Liakhovs,
180
Ann Frances, 86
Anne Royal, 146
Annula, 124
Anoatok, 353, 355
Antarctic, 368, 436; founders, 437
Antarctic Circle first crossed, 395
— exploration, story of, 430 et seq.
— explorations, Amundsen’s, 482 e¢
seq.; Balleny’s, 405, 414; Belgian,
433 et seq.; Bellingshausen’s, 396,
397; Biscoe’s, 403 et seq.; Borch-
grevink’s, 433; Bruce’s, 439, 440;
Charcot’s, 441; Capt. Cook’s, 394
et seqg.; D’Urville’s, 407, 408;
Drygalski’s, 440; Filchner’s, 442;
Foster’s, 400 et seg.; French, 407,
441; Gerlache’s, 433 et seq.;
German, 440, 442; Kempe’s, 405;
Mawson’s, 486 et seq.; Norden-
skidld’s, 435 et seq.; Norwegian,
433, 482 et seq.; Ross’s, 410, 418,
422 et seq.; Russian, 396; Scott’s
first expedition, 447 et seq.; Scott’s
last expedition, 489 et seq.;
_Shackleton’s, 478 et seq.; Swedish,
435 et seq., 506; The Societies’, 444
et seq., 455 et seq., 466 et seq., 471 et
seq.; Weddell’s, 401, 402; Wilkes’s,
408, 409
— ice, II; icebergs, 11; regions,
389 et seq.
Antarctic Manual, 453
Araucaria, 438
Archer, 503
— Colin, 347; constructs the Fram,
B40
Arctic, 302, 303
Arctic currents, 23
— discoveries, by Norsemen, 32 ef
seg., 38 et seqg., 49 et seq.; under
Elizabeth, 157
“ Arctic Highlanders,”’ 24, 203, 253,
299, 301, 313, 338, 339, 352 et seq.,
379; dress of, 24; physical charac-
teristics of, 24
Arctic quadrants, 4, 6, 13
520
Arctic regions, geology of, 384 ez seq.
Arctowski, Henryk, 434, 435, 453
Ardencaple Inlet surveyed, 375
Area of Greenland, 9
Areas, Polar, 3
Avrenavria sulcata, 295
Avethusa, 223
Arias, Juan Luis, his memorial, 392
Armitage, Lieut. Albert, 292, 448,
463 et seg., 480
Arnold, Bishop, 48
Art, Tchuktche, 17
Arte de Navegar, 151; translated by
Eden, 65
Assistance, 251 et seq., 261, 264 et
seq., 349
Astrolabe, 407
Astrolabe, 53; description of, 56, 57;
Drake’s, 57
Astrup, Eivind, 337, 338
Atalayas, 125
Atkinson, Dr, 490, 491, 498, 499,
503; 594,
Atlantic current, 30
Auks, Little, 199
Aurora, 486 et seq.
Austin, Capt. H. T., 216, 252, 255,
273, 401; death of, 262
Axel Heiberg Island, 348, 349, 354
Back, Sir George, 223 ef seq., 276;
serves with Buchan, 199; reaches
Repulse Bay, 230
Baffin, 196
Baffin, William, 124, 125, 138;
patronised by Wolstenholme, 108;
sails with Hall, 113; magnetic
observations by, 115; visits Spits-
bergen, 116; enters service of the
East India Co., 146; his Arctic
voyages, 146; his letter to Wol-
stenholme, 145; his magnetic ob-
servations, 126; explores Spits-
bergen, 127; his map of Hudson
Strait, 139; lunar observations of,
140; visits Eskimo settlement,
140; his third voyage, 142; map
of his discoveries, 144; surveys
Persian coast, 147; captain of the
London, 147; death of, 147; quali-
ties of, 148
Baffin’s Bay, 145, 305; birds of, 99;
currents of, 6; entered by the
Norsemen, 50; its existence doubt-
ed, 145; lost, 146; existence re-
established, 201
Baffin Island, 141
Baidor, 171
Balaclava helmets, 462
Index
Balaena, 296, 431, 439
— Biscayenstis, 125
Balleny, Capt. John, his Antarctic
expedition, 405, 414
— Islands, 406, 408, 417, 477
Ballestilla, 89
Balloon, captive, 450, 457
Bardsen, Ivar, report on Greenland,
51; his sailing directions trans-
lated by Barentsz, 70
Barentsz, Willem, 69; his voyage to
Novaya Zemlya, 70; discovers
Spitsbergen, 74; crews attacked
by scurvy, 75; winters in Novaya
Zemlya, 75; dies, 76; discoveries
of, 77; character of, 78; winter
quarters revisited, 78; hut of, 79;
relics of, 79
— Sea, 297, 360
Barker, Andrew, 114, I15, 116
Barne, Michael, 440, 463, 471, 475
“Barren lands,’ 18
Barrier, The Great, II, 416, 419,
433, 453, 456; altered limit of,
457, 475; height of, 457
Barrington, Hon. Daines, 172
Basaltic pillars, 324; rocks, 295
Basques, the first whalers, 125
Bathurst Island explored, 268
Battye, A. Trevor, 361
Bay ice, 7
— of Whales, 483
Beach Province, 391
Beagle Channel, 436
Bear, 86
Bear, Nelson’s adventure with, 173;
Bears, 296
Bear Island (or Cherrie Island), 73,
121
— Islands, 324
Beardmore Glacier, 498
Beaufort Island, 416
— Sea unexplored, 383
Beaufoy, 402
Beaumont, Lieut., 308
Bedford, 223
Beechey, Capt. F. W., 226 et seq.;
serves with Buchan, 198; sails
with Parry, 206
— Island, 241, 265, 311, 314, 349
Behaim, Martin, figures polar is-
lands, 54
Belcher, Sir Edward, 264, 269, 349
Belgian Antarctic expedition, 433 et
Seq.
Belgica, 368, 434
Bertelsen, 370 é¢ seq.
Bell, Richard, 108, 113
— Sound, 119, 187, 188, 285 ef seq.
Index
Bellerophon, 223
Bellingshausen, Capt., his Antarctic
expedition, 396, 397
Bellot, Lieut., 262; death of, 268
— Strait, 262
Bennet, Stephen, visits Bear Island,
73
Bennett, Gordon, 327
— Island, 179, 180, 329
Bering, Vitus, his voyages, 177;
death of, 178
— Island, 324
— Strait, 170
Bernacchi, Louis C., 433, 449, 475
Bernier, Capt., 362
Berry, Lieut., 329
Best, George, writes narrative of
Frobisher’s second expedition, 90
Bethell, Lieut., 428
Beynen, Koolemans, 311, 358; death
of, 360
Bird, Capt., 213, 216, 218, 411, 420,
424; death of, 251
Birds, 314; Antarctic, 423, 437, 455;
of American Arctic coast, 18; 0
Baffin’s Bay, 99; of Cape Digges,
141; of Cape York, 24; of Davis
Strait, 97; of Franz Josef Land,
296; of Fury Beach, 236; of
Novaya Zemlya, 185; of Spits-
bergen, 121; of Waigatz Island, 64
Biscoe, Capt. John, his Antarctic
expedition, 403 ef seq.
Bishop Arnold, 48
— Eric, 48
-— Olaf, 49
Bishops of Greenland, 47 et seq., 51
Bjaaland, 484
Byj6rling, 325
Black Dog, 1or
Blake, Admiral, 398
Blessing, Dr, 341
Blijde Boodschap, 390
Blink Ice, 163
Blossom, 216, 226, 227, 234
Blubber, 193 .
Boats of Chukchis, 17; of Eskimos,
20, 115
—used on Franklin’s land expe-
dition, 222; used by Back on
Great Fish River, 228; used by
Dease on the Mackenzie, 229; of
Franklin’s retreat, 245
Bona Confidentia, 60
— Esperanza, 60
Book of the Knowledge of all the
Kingdoms, 389
Booth, Sir Felix, 233, 237, 251
Boothia Felix, 234
521
Borchgrevink, Carstens, his Ant-
arctic expedition, 433
Bourne’s Inventions or Devices, 152
Bouvet, Capt. L., 393
— Island, 393
Bowers, Lieut., 490, 492, 495 et seq.,
500, 502; death of, 503
Bransfield, Mr, 398, 400
Brattahlid, 41, 44.
Breadalbane, 268
Briefe and True Relation, Purchas’s,
145
Briggs, Henry, 151
“ Briggs-his-Mathematics,” 154
Briseis, 201
Britain, discovery of, by Pytheas, 27
British expeditions to Spitsbergen,
287
Brocklehurst, Sir Philip, 478, 480
Bromley, Lieut., 428
Brénlund, 370; death of, 373, 374;
diary of, 373
Brooke Place, 105
Brooke’s sounding apparatus, 426
Bruce, Mr, his Antarctic expedition,
439, 440 ne
— Commander Wilfrid, 489, 491,
94
eat Miss Kathleen, 489
Brunel, Oliver, 130; reaches the Obi,
68
Buchan, 198; death of, 200
Buchanan, J. Y., 428
Bulldog, 427
Burney, Capt. James, 169, 394
Burrough, Stephen, 63, 83; dies, 65
— William, 63; commands fleet, 65;
his Discourse of the Compass and
Magnetic Needle, 65, 100; dies, 65
Burrough’s Strait, 64, 184
Bushnan, J., 201, 212
— Cove, 260
— Island, Meteoric boulders at, 24
Button, Sir Thomas, 136; reaches
Hudson’s Bay, 136; winters, 136,
137; dies, 137
Bygd, East, v. East Bygd; West, v-
West Byed
Bylot, Robert, 131, 134, 138, 142
Byron, Commodore, 394
Cagni, Capt., 293; attempts to reach
Pole, 352
“ Calving ’’ of icebergs, ro
California, 166
Campbell, Lieut., 490, 492; his party
winters in ice cave, 49
Canada, Arctic lands transferred to,
362
522 L[udex
Canadian Arctic expeditions, 362
et seq.
Canynge, William, sends ships to
the Arctic, 58
Capes
Adare, 415, 417, 433, 459 479, 477
Armitage, 458, 496
Bernacchi, 480
Bird, 470
Bismarck, 370
Bridgman, 371
Chelagskoi, 182, 183
Chelyuskin, 15, 323, 341
Chidley, 100
Colombia, 355 é¢ seq.
Crozier, 456, 479, 471, 476, 492,
6
49
Elizabeth, 390
Evans, 492 et seq.
Farewell, named by Davis, 96;
sighted by Baffin, 114; sighted
by Munk, 150
Fligely, 290, 294
Horn, 390, 420
Jakan, 183, 324
North, 417, 477, 493
Riley, relics at, 253, 254
Royds, 479
Sparbo, 355
Taimyr, 323
York, 202; birds of, 24
Carcass, 172 et seq.
Cardamine bellidifolia, 295
Cardigan Strait, 349
Carex avenavia, 342
— vesicaria, 334
Carlsbergfondet expedition, 367
Carlsen, Capt., circumnavigates
Spitsbergen, 286
Carpenter, Dr, 427
Cary, Allwyn, 138, 142, 144
— Islands, 144, 261, 312, 313, 325
Castor, 431 et seq.
Cathay, passage to, 105, 106, 118
— Company, 85
Cavendish expedition, ror
Cerastium alpinum, 295
Challenger, 428
Challenger Expedition, 428
“Challenger Gap,” 508
Chancellor, Nicholas, sails with Pet,
66
— Richard, sails with Willoughby,
60; visits Moscow, 62; narrative
of his voyage, 63
Chanticleer, 401, 423
Charcot, his Antarctic expedition,
441
— Land, 442
Charles, 152 et seq.
Charles Darwin Island, 422
Chatham Island, 418
Chelyuskin, 176, 177
— Cape, 15, 323, 341
Cherrie Island v. Cherry Island
Cherry Island (Bear Island), 73, 121
Chesterfield Inlet, 166
Chidley Cape, 100
Chilham, 107, 108
Christian IV sends expedition to
Greenland, 112; claims Spits-
bergen, 124
Christianity reaches Iceland, 42;
introduced into Greenland, 43
Christianshaab, 162, 164
Chukchis, v. Tchuktches
Churches, at East Bygd, 47, 48; in
Greenland, 51; ruins of Greenland,
52
Churchill, 167
Churchward, John, 98, 99
Circum-polar coast, 18; trees, 13;
tribes, 13
Clavering, Douglas, 279; death of,
281
Clavus, Claudius, maps of, 54
Clements Markham Glacier, 380
Clerke, Capt., 171, 394
Clio, 238, 240
Clothing, Arctic, 292, 352; M’Clin-
tock’s, 257; Nansen’s, 334, 3423
Peary’s, 337
— Antarctic, Amundsen’s, 482 ;
Scott’s, 462; Shackleton’s, 478
Coal at Kudlisit, 312; in Ellesmere
Island, 350; in Finmarken, 73; in
Spitsbergen, 361; near Lady
Franklin Bay, 309
Coats Land, 440
Cochlearia fenestrata, 295
Cockayne, Sir William, 106, 108,
113, 135
Cockburn Island, 423
Cod, 98
Codex Flateyensis, 38
Colbeck, Capt. William, 433, 467 et
seq., 476
Cole, Humphrey, inventor of the
Log, 152
Collins, Grenville, 156
Collinson, Capt., 263
Collision of Evebus and Terror, 419
Commonwealth Bay, 487
Continental shelf, 340, 356; Ant-
arctic, 397, 435
Conway, Sir Martin, crosses Spits-
bergen, 361 e¢ seg.; his books on
Spitsbergen, 362
Index
Cook, Capt. James, 169 et seq.; ex-
plores neighbourhood of Bering
Strait, 170; his Antarctic expedi-
tion, 394 et seq.
— Dr Frederick, 337, 338, 434;
attempts to reach Pole, 353 et seq. ;
winters in Jones Sound, 355
Copper, 167, 169
Coppermine River, 168, 169, 229
Cornwallis, 238, 240
Céte Clarie, 408, 487
Cove, 237
Crab-eating seal, 483
Creak, Capt. Ettrick, 446, 451
Crean, 490, 495, 498, 499, 503
Cresswell, Lieut., 263, 268
Crevasse, Scott falls into, 474
Crevasses, Antarctic, 474, 475, 479,
480, 481, 494, 498
Cross-staff, 56, 89, 102
Crow’s nest, 189
Crozier, Commander, 213, 216, 239,
410, 414, 420, 424
Crozon, Frobisher besieges, 92
Cryolite, 164, 311
Cumberland Gulf, 95, 96, 98, 100
Cunningham, John, 142
Currents, Atlantic, 30; Arctic, 23;
Baffin’s Bay, 6; Greenland, 5, 41;
Oceanic, in arctic, 5
Dailey, Mr, 471
Dalager, Lars, 331
Dalbyo, 325
Dame Europa’s School, author of,
306
Dance, Commodore, 222
Danes Island, 344
Danish Arctic expeditions, 364 et
seq.; 376 et seq.
Danmark, 369
Danmark Fjord, 372, 378; Havn,
379
Dannebrog Islands, 365
David, Professor T. W. E., 478
Davidson, Dr, 468
Davis, John, 93; sails on his first
voyage, 94; his provisions, 96; his
second expedition, 96; names
Cape Farewell, 96; re-enters his
strait, 96; meets Eskimos, 95, 96,
97; compiles Eskimo vocabulary,
97; map of voyages of, 97; his
third expedition, 98; magnetic
observations of, 99; commands
Black Dog, 101; commands Desire,
tor; commands Drake, 101; joins
Cavendish expedition, ror; visits
the Azores, ror; death of, 102;
523
life of, 100, 102; character of, 101;
narrative of his voyages, 100; his
quadrant, 102; his Seaman's Se-
crets, 102; his World’s Hydro-
graphical Description, 102; place-
names given by, 103
Davis, Capt. J. E. (Master of the
Terror), 412, 425, 430
Davis Strait, 97
Day, Mr, 491
Dayman, Lieut., 426, 427
Dease, Peter Warren, 228
Debenham, F., 491
de Bruyne, Lieut. A., 359 e¢ seq.
Deception Island, 400, 401
Dee, Dr, 83, 94
De Hozes, Francisco, 389
Del Cano, Sebastian, 389
Dellbridge, J. H., 464 et seq.
De Long, Lieut., his expedition, 327
et seq.; retreat of, 329; fate of,
329; character of, 329, 330
Demetri, 495, 503
Dennis, 86; founders, 88
Den Rid Love, 112
d’Orléans, Duc, 368, 435
Deshneff, Simon, 175
Desive, 101
Des Voeux, 240
D’Urville, Dumont, 440; his Ant-
arctic expedition, 407, 408
Diana, 287, 288, 326, 431
Diary of Bronland, 373
Dickson, Baron Oscar, 322, 332, 431
— Dr, 425
Digges, Sir Dudley, 106, 107, 108,
135, 142
— Leonard, 106, 107
— Thomas, 107
Dinner to Scott’s expedition, 453
Dirk Gerritsz Archipelago, 390
“Discharging glaciers,’’ 9
Disco Bay, 48, 161, 162, 163, 164,
333
Disco Island, fossils in, 350
Discourse of the Compass and Mag-
netic Needle, 100
Discovery, Baffin’s, 138 et seq., 142
et seq.
— Button’s, 236
— Clerke’s, 169 e# seq.
— Hudson’s, 129, 131
— Moore’s, 165
— Nares’s, 304, 312
— Scott’s, 451 et seq.; plans of, 446,
447; flag of, 447; relieved by
Morning, 470; freed from the ice,
476; ashore, 476; damage to
rudder, 477; returns home, 477
524
Divers Voyages (Hakluyt), 110
Dobbs, 166
Dogs, 17, 337, 338, 354, 355; in
Antarctic, 462, 472, 482, 483;
Greenland, 23
Dorothea, 198 et seq.
Draba alpina, 295
Drake, ror
Drake, Sir Thomas, 389; his astro-
labe, 57
— R.N., Mr, 489
Dress of Arctic Highlanders, 24; of
Eskimos, 19
Drift, Antarctic, 435
— westerly polar, 5, 297, 310, 340,
342, 343; Jeannette’s, 328
Driftwood, 23
Dronning Luisa Land, 373, 378, 381
Drygalski, Erik von, his Antarctic
expedition, 440
— Glacier, 481
Duse, Lieut., 436
Dutch, the, open trade with Russia,
68; renew voyages to the North,
72, 73; first visit to Spitsbergen
by, 124; despatch second fleet to
Spitsbergen, 126
Dutch Arctic explorations, 358 et seq.
Dysentery attacks Shackleton’s
party, 480
Earl Camden, 222
East Bygd, 51, 159, 160; settlement
of, 40; Augustinian monastery at,
47; churches at, 47; fate of, 51
East India Company, founded, 105;
undertake North-West Passage,
129; Baffin enters service of, 146
Easter Island, visited by Cook, 396
Edward VI encourages Frobisher,
81; patronises Arctic exploration,
59, 60
Edward Bonaventure, 60
Eendracht, 390
Eenhiérningen, 150
Egede, Hans, 158 ef seq.; discovers
Kakortak ruins, 47; history of his
mission, 160 ef seg.; on Eskimo
words, 160; his family, 162; dies,
163; his books, 163
— Paul, 161 et seq.
Egedesminde, 163
Egerton, Admiral Sir George, 304,
306 et seq., 446, 448
Eiva, 290; founders, 291
Eira Harbour, 294
Eis blink, 163
Eliza Scott, 405, 406
Elizabeth, 98, 99, 100
Lndex
Elizabeth, Queen, encourages Arctic
discovery, 79; supports Frobisher,
82, 85; decorates Frobisher, 86
Elizabethan Arctic discoveries, 157
Ellen, 98, 99, 100
Ellesmere Island, 265, 298, 299, 308,
325, 347 et seq., 354, 362; coal in,
359°
Emanuel, 86
— (busse), 86, 91
Emperor penguins, 472, 476, 496,
497
Empetrum nigrum, 116
Enderby, Charles, 403 et seq.
— Land, 404
— Quadrant, 505
England, Lieut., R.N. 478
Engroneland, 118
Enterprise, 248, 250 et seq., 263
Epitaph, Franklin’s, 243
Equipment, sledging, Hearne’s, 168;
Nansen’s, 334; Ross’s, 256; Scott’s
450, 460; Sverdrup’s, 348; Wran-
gell’s, 182
Evebus (under Ross), 410 e¢ seg., 418
et seq.; collision of, 419
— (under Franklin), 237 ef seq.,
240 et seqg., 246 et seq., 251; sinks,
247
Erebus and Terror Bay, 422
Erichsen, Mylius, 369 et seg.; death
of, 374, 375
Erik, Bishop, 48
— the Red, 39; Saga of, 38; voyage
of, 41
Eriksfjord, 113
Esk, 195
Eskimos, 17, 18, 84, 112, 113, 115,
142, 143, 229, 234; boats of, 20,
115; dress of, 19; East Greenland,
365, 366; harpoons of, 23; iglus,
234; physical characteristics of,
Ig, 20, 22; priests of, 23; snow-
huts of, 20; their folk-lore, 366;
vocabulary of, compiled by Davis,
97; vocabulary of, Egede’s, 160;
at Igloolik, 214; of Boothia, 235;
in Greenland, 22, 335; massacred
by Indians, 168; met by Amund-
sen, 314, 315; met by Baffin, 140;
met by Davis, 95, 96, 97; met by
Egede, 159; met by Hudson’s
mutineers, 134; met by M’Clin-
tock, 275; met by Sabine, 280 eé
seqg.; visit Parry’s vessels, 214
Evans, Commander, 489, 490, 492,
498, 499
— Edgar, 471 et seq., 490, 495, 498,
500 ef seg.; death of, 502
Index
Excellent, 238, 240
Faddiev, 179
Falkland Islands, 405, 420, 436
Farewell, Cape, sighted by Baffin,114
Faroes, 121
Fauna, of American Arctic Coast,
18; of Cape Sabine, 320; of Franz
Josef Land, 296; of Greenland,
96; of Melville Island, 209; of
Spitsbergen, 119, 121, 128
Feather, T. A., 472
Feilden, Capt., 304
Felix, 251, 253, 254
Felspar crystals, 4.79
Fenton, Edward, 90
Ferrar, Hartley T., 449, 464 et seq.,
e:
F See Glacier, 465, 471
Fiala, Capt., 293
Field, Capt., 446
“ Pieldices 7
Filchner, his Antarctic expedition,
442
Finmarken, 73; coast explored by
Ohthere, 34; geology of, 73
Finneshos, 334, 342, 462, 478
Fish, abundance of, 98
Fisher, Dr, 209 ef seq.
— Rey. George, 213
Fitzjames, James, 238 e¢ seq.; death
ot, 247
Fjords, Greenland, 9, 41
Flag of the Discovery, 447
Flags, sledge, Nares’s expedition,
304; Scott’s, 450
Flatey Book, 38, 47; account of
voyage of Leif Erik, 43
Flensing, 192
Flinders, Capt., 222
Floe, Tyson’s party adrift on, 301
* Bloe-bergs,”’ 7
Flova Antarctica, 418
Flora of American Arctic Coast, 18;
of Baffin’s Bay, 116; of Cockburn
Island, 423; of Franz Josef Land,
295; of Greenland, 41, 96; of
Melville Island, 211; of Novaya
Zemlya, 185, 186; of Waigatz, 64
Forster, Johann Reinhold, 394
Fort Enterprise, 224; Providence,
224 et seq.
Fortune, 177
Fossils, Antarctic, 423, 431, 432,
436, 437, 440, 501, 500; penguins,
438; tertiary, 350
Foster, Capt. Henry, 216, 423; his
Antarctic expedition, 400 et seq.;
death of, 4o1
525
Fotherby family, 124, 126
Fox, 273, 311; winters in Bellot’s
Strait, 274
Fox Channel, 154
Fox, Luke, 137, 151; sails north,
152; discovers relics of Button
and Munk, 154; meets Capt.
James, 154; his Narrative, 156;
map of, 145, 146, 155
Foyn, Svend, 433, 467
Fram (Nansen’s), 340 et seq.; di-
mensions of, 340; drift of, 344;
arrives home, 344; under Sver-
drup, 347; winters in Smith
Channel, 347; winters in Havyn-
fjord, 348; winters in Jones Sound,
349
— (Amundsen’s), 482 ef seq.
Francais, 442
Francis, 86
Francke, Rudolf, 353 et seg.
Frankln, Lady, 251
— Sir John, 222, 238 ef seq., 413,
414; serves with Buchan, 198;
at Trafalgar, 223; hisland journey,
223 et seq.; marries Miss Porden,
226; his second land journey, 226;
marries Miss Griffin, 227; last
expedition sails, 241; death of,
243; Tennyson’s epitaph on, 243;
his record, 243, 244; retreat of his
party, 245 ef seg.; search for, 248
et seq.; his winter quarters dis-
covered, 254; his relics found, 272,
275, 270, 314
Franklin Island, 415
Franz Josef Land, 289 ef seq., 345,
360; explorers of, 293; described,
293, 294; flora of, 295; fauna of,
296; birds of, 296; part of Spits-
bergen, 340; Nansen reaches, 343
Frederikshaab, 163, 331
Freeman, Ralph, 106
French Antarctic expeditions, 407,
I
Preehae: Herr, 370, 380
Friesland (or Frieslanda), 55, 56, 83,
85, 88, 95, 160
Frisland v. Friesland
Frobisher, Martin, 81; starts his
Arctic voyage, 83; meets Eskimos,
84; supposed discovery of gold by,
85; his second expedition, 85; his
provisions, 90; authorities for his
voyage, 91; life of, 91; character
of, 91; dies, 92; place-names given
by, 92
Frobisher Strait, 152, 159
Frozen soil, depth of, 16
526
Fulford, Faith, 93
Furious Overfall, The, roo, 123, 131
Furnace, 165
Furs, 482
Fury, 212, 216; wrecked, 234
Fury Beach, 234, 236, 249, 303
Fury and Hecla Strait, 214, 216
Gabriel, 83, 86
— (Bering’s), 177
Gabrielsen, Tobias, 370 et seq.
Gael Hamke Bay, 279 et seq.
Gamaliel, 124
Ganges, 240
Garrard, Mr Cherry, 491, 494, 496,
498, 503, 504
Garwood, Mr, 361
Gatonby, John, 114
Gauss, 362, 440, 441, 451
Gauss, Prof., 417
Gaussberg, 508
Geology, of Antarctic regions, 429,
434, 435, 438, 480, 501, 505; of
Arctic regions, 384 ef seg.; of
Finmarken, 73
George, 65
Gerlache, M. de, 368, 390; his Ant-
arctic expedition, 433 et seq.
Gerlache Channel, 434
German Antarctic expeditions, 440,
442
Germania, 282
Gerritsz, Dirk, 390
Giffard, 304
Gilbert, Adrian, 94, 96, 98
— Sir Humphrey, his Discourse on
a North-west Passage to Cathay, 82,
94
Gilbert Sound, 95, 109, 114; Egede
reaches, 159
Gilliflower, 113
Gjoa, 314, 315
Glaciers, Antarctic, 471; Greenland,
9g; discharging, 9; in Novaya
Zemlya, 186; movement of, 331,
332
Globes, Molyneux, 55, 104
Godenoff, Boris, 105
Godspeed, 129
Godthaab, 95, 114, I16, 160, 316, 336
Goggles, 462
Gold, supposed discovery by Fro-
bisher of, 85
Goodsir, Dr, 240
Goose Land, 185
Gore, Graham, 240, 243, 245
Gore-Booth, Sir Henry, 360
Graah, Capt., 217; explores
Greenland, 281
East
Index
Graham Land, 405, 406, 431, 432,
434, 442, 500
Granite, 456
Grant, W. J. A., 359
Gray, Capt., 283
Great Bear Lake, 226
Great Fish River, 228, 275
Great Slave Lake, 224, 228, 316
Greely, Lieut., 316; work of, 320
Greely expedition, 317 et seq.
Greenland, altitudes in, 332, 333,
335, 336, 338, 381; area of, 9;
attempt to rediscover Norse
colony in, 112; Bardsen’s report
on, 51; Bishop Arnold of, 48;
Bishop Erik of, visits Vinland, 48;
bishops of, 47 et seq., 51; churches
of, 51; first bishop of, conse-
crated, 47; Christian IV sends
expedition to, 112; Christianity
introduced into, 43; coast ex-
plored by Nares’s expedition, 308;
current of East coast of, 41;
Danish expeditions to, 364 et seq.,
376 et seq.; devastated by small-
pox, 162; East coast mapped,
368; Egede’s map of, 161; ex-
plorations in, 279 ef seqg.; later
explorations in, 376 ef seg.; fauna
of, 96; first attempt to approach
East coast of, 98; first governor
of, 160; fjords of, 9, 41; flora of,
41, 96; glaciers of, 9; ice-cap of, 9;
inland ice of, 9, 331, 332, 336;
map of, 377; Moravian missions
to, 162, 163, 164; crossed by
Nansen, 334; by Rasmussen, 379;
by Quervain, 381; by Koch, 381;
Nordenskidld attempts crossing,
325; Norsemen in, 38; name
of, applied to Spitsbergen, 118,
124; Peary’s journeys in, 338, 368,
369; products of, 163, 164; ruins
of churches in, 52; runic inscrip-
tions, 52; stations of, 163; ship
visits Iceland, 51; sighted by
Davis, 95; colonies, population of,
51; colonies, their fate, 51;
Current, 5; Eskimos, physical
characteristics of, 22
Greyhound, 72
Griffin, 72
Grinnell, 252
Grinnell Land, 269
Griper, 206 et seg., 212, 215, 233,
280
Gron, Tryggve, 491, 503
Groneland, 118
Guillemard, Jeanne, 227
Index
Gull, Ivory, 296; Ross’s, 296, 343;
Sabine’s, 203
Haarfager, Harold, 35, 36
Hadley’s Quadrant, 102
Hagen, Lieut. H., 370 et seq.; death
of, 374
Hakluyt, Richard, 109 et seq., 135;
his Divers Voyages touching the
Discoveries of America, 110; his
Principall Navigations, 110
Halgoland, 61
Hall, 300
— Christopher, 88, 90; master of
Gabriel, 83; island named after,
84; quarrels with Frobisher, 89
— James, 112, I13, 114, 116; is
killed, 115; place- names given 'by,
II2, 114, 116
Hamilton, Admiral Sir R. Vesey, 446
Handsley, 471, 472
Hansa, 282
Hansen, B. H., 345
— S. Scott, 341
Hanson, 433
Hanssen, 484
Hare (boy), accident to, 459
Harpoon, 190; Eskimo, 23
Hartz, Herr, 367, 368
Hassel, 484
Hauksbok, 38, 39, 47; account of
voyage of Leif Erik, 43; author of,
eae
Hayes, Dr, 299
Hearne, Samuel, his first journey,
167; explores the Coppermine
River, 168; taken prisoner by the
French, 169
Heartsease (Greenland voyage), 113
et seq.
— Marmaduke’s, 126
Hecla, 206 et seq., 212; under Parry,
216 et seq., 233
— Ryder’s, 367
Hedenstrém surveys the Liakhovs,
180
Heemskerk, Jacob van, 72
Heiberg, Axel, 347
Hendrik, Hans, 305
Henrietta, 192
Henrietta Maria, 154
Henson, 337; 357
Herald Island, 183, 328
Hertha, 431, 432
Highlanders, Arctic, 24; Ross’s, 202,
253, 299, 301, 313, 338, 352 et. seq.,
379 ; dress, 24 ; physical character-
istics of, 24
Hinlopen Strait, 127, 285, 288
527
Hodgson, Thomas V., 449
Hoidtenland Islands, 343
Hold-with-Hope, 118
Holm, Lieut. G., 364 et seq.
Holsteinborg, 112, 115, 163
Hondius’s map of 1611, 77
Hood, Robert, murder of, 225
— Dr, 106
Hooker, Sir Joseph, 412, 415, 418,
420; 423, 445
Hooper, 503
“Hoosh,”’ 461
Hope, 72
— Adams’s, 390
— Egede’s, 158 ef seq.
— Young’s, 291
Hope Bay, 436, 437
Hopewell, 86
— Knight’s, 117 et seq., 130
Hoskins, Admiral Sir Anthony, 446
Hudson, Henry, 117; his first
voyage, 118; his second voyage,
122; names of crew of his second
voyage, 122; visits Novaya Zem-
lya, 122; results of his voyages,
123; his last voyage, 131; names
of crew of his last voyage, 131;
sights Iceland, 131; winters in his
Bay, 132; mutiny of his crew, 132
et seq.; his character, 135
— Thomas, I17
Hudson’s Bay, first so-called, 131;
map of, 167; voyages to, 129
Hudson's Bay Company, 228 ; found-
ing of, 165; early voyages of, 165
Hudson Strait, 152; discovery of, 89
Hudson’s Touches, T21
Hull Trinity House, 116
Huntriss, William, 113
Ibis, 320
Ice, Antarctic, 11; thickness of drift,
5
“Ice blink,” 8, 163
Ice-cap, Antarctic, 473, 474, 477,
506, 597
“Tce-foot,’”’ 8, 298
Ice, nomenclature, 7; phenomena,
326; thickness of, in Arctic, 5
Icebergs, 9, 10; Antarctic, II,
colour of, ro
Iceland, Christianity introduced into,
42; physical features of, 36 ;
reached by the Vikings, 36; settle-
ment of, 37; sighted by Hudson,
131; visit of Greenland ship to,
51; voyages to, 58
Icy Cape, 170, 171
Igloolik, Parry winters at, 214
12;
528
Iglus, 21, 22
— Eskimo, 234
Independence Bay, 339, 373
Independence Sound, 372, 373
Inglefield, Admiral, 265, 268, 270,
298, 348
Ingulf, 364.
“Tnland Ice”
332, 330 ;
In Northern Mists, Nansen’s, 346
Instruments nautical etc., 56, 80,
Io2, 110, 115; Cook’s, 354, 355,
394; invented by Leigh-Smith,
287; Nansen’s, for crossing Green-
land, 335; James’s, 154; Scott’s,
452, 499
Intvepid, 251, 253, 254, 2601, 264 ef
Séq., 347 ;
Inventions oy Devices, Bourne’s, 152
Investigator, 222, 248, 251, 263 et
seg.; loss of, 270
Irizar, Capt. Julio, 437
Iron, meteoric, 202
— (meteoric) weapons, 24.
Isabella, 198 et seq., 233, 237
Isachsen, G. I., 347 et seq.
Isbjérn, 289, 360
Iversen, Iver, 376 et seq.
Ivory Gull, 296
of Greenland, 9, 331,
Jackson, F. G., 291; rescues Nansen,
293
Jacobshavn, 381
James, Thomas, 152; portrait of,
153; instruments taken by, 154;
meets Foxe, 154; winters in
Hudson’s Bay, 154
Jane, 402
Janes, John, 94, 95, 98, 100
Jansen, Commodore, 285, 358
Jashak, naval battle of, 147
Jason, 431
Jeannette, 328; drift of relics of, 340
Jeffreys, Gwyn, 427
Jenkinson, Antony, on N.E. Passage,
82
Jensen, Lieut., explores Greenland,
333
Johansen, 370 et seq.
— F. H., 342 ef seq.
John and Francis, 124
Joinville Island, 421, 431
Jonah in the Whale, 188
Jones, Sir Francis, 106, 108, 135, 124
Jones Sound, 347, 348, 355; Pram
winters in, 349
Jorgensen, Capt., 376 ef seg., 442,
443. Ne
Joseph, Benjamin, 124 e¢ seq.
Index
Juan Fernandez, 392
Judith, 86
Julianshaab, 164
Jurassic flora in Antarctic, 438
— life, first in Arctic, 4
Kaiser Wilhelm II Land, 487, 488
Kakortak, ruins of, 47, 52, 160
Kallstenius, 325
Kamschatka, I71
Kane, Dr, 255, 298, 353
Kara Sea, 72, 327, 360; expeditions,
34
Karlsefni, Thorfin, descendants of,
46; reaches Labrador, 45; Saga of,
39
Katten, 112, 129
Kayaks, 20, 22, 95, 113, 115, 342 et
S€q-, 353» 395
Kellett; Capt., 264, 268
Kempe, Capt., his Antarctic expe-
dition, 405
Kempe Land, 405, 508
Kendall, 401
Kennedy, William, 262
Keohane, 495, 498, 503
Khabarova, 15, 341
King Edward VII visits the Dis-
covery, 454
King Edward VII Land, 477, 492, 506
King George IV Sea, 402
King William Island, 230, 274 e¢ seq.
King William Land, 235, 242, 314
Kingiktorsuak, 49
Kingoadal, ruins in, 48
Kishim, 147
Kites in sledge travel, 258
Knight, John, 112; his expedition
and death, 129, 130
Koch, Johan Peter, 370 ef seq., 381
et seq.
Koetthtz, Dr, 292, 295, 449, 464 et
Seq.
Koettlitz Glacier, 476
Kola Peninsula, 13
Koldewey, Karl, visits Greenland,
282; visits Spitsbergen, 282
Koldewey Island, 370
Kolguev Island, 14, 361; discovered,
64; visited by Munk, 150
Kolyma River, 324
Kostin Shar, 185
Kotelnoi Island, 179, 341
Kroksfjord, 49
Kruuse, H. C., his Greenland bo-
tanical work, 366, 367
Labrador, 98; discovered by Karl-
sefni, 45
Index
Lady Franklin, 251
Lady Franklin Bay, 317
Lambert Land, 371, 373
Lamont, Mr, 287
Lamprenen v. Lamprey
Lamprey, 150, 151
Lamps, cooking, 342, 461
Lancaster, Sir James, 106, 108, 113,
135, 142
Lancaster Sound, 144, 207, 234, 241,
253, 311, 312
“Land of Busse,’’ 91
“Land of Desolation,” 95
Landnamabok, 37
Lane, Henry, 104
Lapps, 13; im Greenland, 332, 335
Laptef, Cheriton, 177
La Roche, Anthony, 393
Larsen, Capt., 431, 432, 440
Lashly, 47% et seq., 490, 495, 498,
499, 503
Laub, Lieut., 376 et seq.
Ledyard, John, 171
Leif Erik, Flatey book account of
voyage to Vinland (Newfound-
land), 43; marries Thorgunna, 42;
reaches Vinland, 42
Leigh-Smith, Benjamin, 287, 288;
visits Franz Josef Land, 290;
revisits it, 291; winters in it, 291,
294
Le Maire, Jacob, 390
Lena, 323
Lena River, 316, 324, 329;
covered, 175; descended, 177
Levick, Dr, 490, 493
Liakhov Islands (New Siberian
Islands), 177, 179, 328, 329, 341,384
Lichtenfels, 163
Lievely, 217, 347
Lightning, 427
Lillie, Mr, 491, 494
Lindenow, Goolske, 113
Linschoten, J. H. van, 70 ef seq.;
dies, 72; his narrative, 72
Lion, 91
— Pickersgill’s, 171
Lively, 403 et seq.
Loads for sledges, 23, 176, 265, 472,
479
Loaysa, Garcia Jofre de, 389
Lock, Michael, 82 et seg.
Lock’s Island, 88
Lockwood, Lieut. James, 317 e/ seq.;
death of, 320
Lodias, 63
Log, use of the, 152
Logarithms, introduced by Briggs,
I51I
dis-
M.I.
529
London, 147
London Coast, 99
PAY, founded by Cockayne,
ae)
Longhurst, Cyril, 450, 453, 467
Longstaff, Mr, 466; supports
Societies’ Expedition, 445
Lowther Island, 259
Lumley, Lord, 152
Lutke Land, 186
Lyall, Dr, 412
Lyon, Capt. G. F., 212 ef 3aq.;
voyage of, 215; death of, 216
Lyons, Israel, 173
Lyttelton, New Zealand, 455, 469,
479, 477, 478, 491
M’Clintock, Admiral Sir Leopold,
249 et seg., 204 et seqg., 303, 427,
446, 453; his sledges, 256; his
sledge crew, 259; his sledge
The
journey, 3560; commissions the
Fox, 273; knighted, 278; death of,
278
M’Clure, Capt., 248; winters in
Prince of Wales Strait, 264; his
record found by Mecham, 265
McCormick, Dr R., 412, 425
Mackenzie, Alexander, explores
Mackenzie River, 169
Mackenzie River, 169, 226; explora-
tion of, 169, 384
Maclear, Lieut., 428
M’Murdo, Archibald, 411, 420
M’Murdo Bay, 416
— Sound, 456, 457, 492, 493
Macquarie Island, 455, 486
Magallanica, 391
Magellan, 389
Magnetic force, irregular, 455
— observations, 99, 115; Antarctic,
475, 476 ‘
— Pole, Sir James Ross discovers,
236; South, 417, 475, 480, 481;
position of, 415
— storms, 417
Magpie, 405
Mahu, Jacob, 390
Maigaard, Lieut., 333
Maldonado on Strait of Anian, 82
Mammoth ivory, 179, 180, 184
Maps, Baffin’s discoveries, 144;
Barentsz’s discoveries, by Hon-
dius, 77; Claudius Clavus’s, 54;
Davis’s voyages, 97; Egede’s, of
Greenland, 161; Foxe’s, 155;
Frobisher’s discoveries, 87; Gra-
ham Land, 399; Greenland, 377;
Hudson Bay, 167; Hudson Strait,
34
53°
by Baffin, 139; medieval, 55; by
Mercator, 55, 95, 391; North-
eastern Siberia, 181; North-
western Siberia, 181; Olaus
Magnus and Zamoiski, 55; Orte-
lius’s (1570), 55, 391; Parry
Islands, 210; Settlement of East
Bygd, 40; South Shetlands, 399;
Spitsbergen, 120; Zeni, 54
Markham, Admiral Sir A. H., 301,
313, 360, 446, 447; sails on whaler,
302
— Sir Clements, 446; serves on the
Assistance, 252; his Threshold of
the Unknown Region, 302
— Lady (Clements), 447
— Lieut. John, 400
Markland (Labrador), discovered by
Karlsefni, 45
Marmaduke, Capt., 124; his ex-
plorations in Spitsbergen, 127
Marshall, 479
— Captain, 197
Maryner’s Book, 151
Massacre of Eskimos, 168
Matonabi, 167 e¢ seq.
Matthew, 124
Matyushin Strait, 184, 185, 360
Maury, 358
Mawson, Sir Douglas, 478, 480; his
Antarctic expedition, 486 et seq.
May, Lieut., 304
Meares, Mr, 489, 491, 498
Mecham, Frederick, 259, 261, 264
et seq.; finds M’Clure’s record, 265;
his great sledge journey, 270, 350;
character of, 271; death of, 271
Meddelelser om Grénland, 364, 366
Melampyrum sylvaticum, 04
Melville Bay, 143, 202, 273, 303, 314,
8
33
Melville Island, 208 ef seq., 259, 260,
265 et seq.; fauna of, 209; flora of,
211; interior explored, 209
Melville Peninsula, 214; explored by
Rae, 231
Mercator, his maps, 55, 95, 391;
Atlas, 391
Merchant Adventurers, Io4, I13;
Company, 59
“Merchants of London, Governor
and Company of,” 135
Mercury, 69
Mermaid, 96, 97
Mertz, Dr, 486; death of, 487
Meteoric iron, 202, 339; weapons, 24
Michael, 83, 86
Micmac Indians, 98
Middendorf, 184
Index
Middle Pack, 100, 142
Middleton,Capt. Christopher, winters
in Hudson’s Bay, 166
Mikkelsen, Einar, 368, 376 et seq.,
384
Milton, history of Muscovia, 62
Miocene, Antarctic, 438
Molyneux globes, 55, 104
Monastery (Augustinian) in East
Bygd, 47 ;
Montreal Island, 272, 275
Monument to Vince, 476
Moon, 86
Moonshine, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98
Moore, Admiral, 411, 425
Moravian missions, 162, 163, 164; in
Greenland, 162, 163
Morning, 4606 et seq., 476
Moseley, 428
Mosquitos, 15
Motor-car, Shackleton’s, 478
Motor Sledges, 490, 497
Mount Erebus, 416, 458; ascended,
479, 504
— Haddington, 422
— Jason, 431
— Longstaff, 464
— Markham, 464
— Melbourne, 493
— Moberly, 404
— Sabine, 415
— St Elias discovered, 178
— Terror, 416
— William, 404
Mountain sickness, 480
Mourier, Commander, 364
Miller, Baron, 431
Mulock, Lieut. G. F. A., 470 et seq.
Munk, Jens Eriksen, 149; visits
Iceland, 150; visits Kolguev, 150;
his narrative, 151; death of, 151
Murman Coast, 13, 63
Murray, Mr J., 478
— Sir John, 428, 446; on Antarctic
exploration, 444
Muscovy Company, 105, 123, 124;
receives charter, 62; discourages
Frobisher, 82; protests against
Dutch encroachments, 121; des-
patches fleet to Spitsbergen, 124;
despatches N.W. expedition, 130
Musk ox, 22, 267, 281, 318, 338, 339,
347, 349, 371, 372, 374, 380
Mutineers, Hudson’s, — sail
Button, 136
with
Nai, Cornelis, 69, 70
Nanortalik, 364, 365
Nansen, Fridtjof, 340 et seqg., 386;
Index 531
rescued by Jackson, 293; crosses
Greenland, 334 e¢ seq.; his instru-
ments for crossing Greenland, 335;
scientific papers of, 345; his In
Northern Mists, 346
Nares, Admiral Sir George, 267, 304
et seq., 446; his expedition sails,
304; arrives at Lievely, 305; his
winter quarters, 305; results of his
expedition, 309; commands the
Challenger, 428
Narwhals, 143
Nathorst, Professor, 368
Natives, Polar, 13
Nelson, Horatio, 173
— Mr, 490, 503
Nemtinoff, Lieut., 285
Neumeyer, Prof., 440, 441
New Attractive, 100
New Guinea, 391
New Siberian Islands, v, Liakhov
Islands
Newfoundland, 98; (Vinland), dis-
covered by Leif Erik, 42; redis-
covered, 58
Newland, 118, 119
Newton, Professor Alfred, 287
Nias, Sir Joseph, 201, 212
Nicholas of Lynn, 53
Nimrod, 478 et seq.
Ninnis, Lieut., 486; death of, 487
Nodal, the brothers, 390
Nonsuch, 165
Nordenskiéld, Erland, 325
—Nils Adolf Erik, Baron, 322 et
seq., 386; on Omoki, 16; visits
Spitsbergen, 286 et seq.; explores
Greenland, 325; results of his
voyage, 324; character of, 325;
his explorations in Greenland, 322
— Otto, 368; his Antarctic expedi-
tion, 435 et seqg.; results, 438,
439
Nordsetur, 49
Norman, Robert, his New Attractive,
r00
Norse colony in Greenland, attempt
to rediscover, I12
— methods of reckoning time, 45
— Settlement of East Bygd found-
ed, 41
Norsemen, the, 30, 32; Arctic dis-
coveries by, 32 et seq., 38 et seq.,
49 et seq.; in Greenland, 38
North Cape, rounded by Ohthere,
34; named by Burrough, 63
North East Passage, 322; attempted
by Wood, 156
North Georgian Gazette, 208
North Pole, attempts to reach, 351
et Seq.
North Somerset, 251
North Star, Davis’s, 96; Saunders’s,
250, 205
North West Passage, 155, 268, 275,
314; attempted by Frobisher, 81;
attempted by Ross, 233; rewards
for discovery of, 172
Norwegian expeditions, Antarctic,
433, 482 et seq.; Novaya Zemlya,
288; Spitsbergen, 286
Novaya Zemlya, 157, 289, 316, 360;
description of, 184 et seq.; dis-
covered by Willoughby, 61; visited
by Hudson, 122
Nunataks, 331, 333, 335, 372, 373+
378, 381
Oates, Capt., 490, 491, 498, 500 ef
seg.; death of, 502; cairn to his
memory, 503
Obi River, 323, 326
Observations, lunar, by Baffin, 140;
magnetic, 99, I15; magnetic,
Antarctic, 475, 476; Peary’s, 357;
pendulum, Antarctic, 400; sta-
tions for synchronous, 316, 414;
synchronous, Antarctic, 420, 451
Observatory, Rossbank, 414
Ocean, depth of, 296, 297, 344, 345
Oceanic currents in Arctic, 5
Oceanography, Antarctic, 426 et seq.
Odin’s horse (Sleipner), 31
Odometer, 372
Officers of Nares’s expedition, 304
Ohthere, 33; voyage of, 34
Olaf, Bishop, 49
Olaf Tryggvason, Saga of, 38
Ommanney, Erasmus, 237, 251,
252; death of, 262
Omoki, 16, 20
“One-ton Depot,” 494, 498
Onkilon, 16, 20; relics of the, 21
Origanus, David, 141
Orleans Channel, 434, 436
Ormuz, siege of, 147
Ornen, 113
Orosius, 33
Ortelius, map of world (1570), 55,
gI
Cabarns Sherard, 251, 261, 264 et
seq., 268, 301, 302
Ostiaks, 16
Otter, Sea, 178
Ox, Musk, 22
Paar, Major, first governor of Green-
land, 160
532
Pack ice, 8; Antarctic, 12
Pagoda, 425
Palander, Lieut. Louis, 287, 323
Pancake ice, 7
Pandora, 311 et seq., 327, 359; name
changed to Jeannette, 328
Papaver alpinum, 96
— nudicaule, 295
Parr, Lieut., 304
Parry, Sir Edward, 201, 205, 206:
discoveries by, 207; winters in
Melville Island, 208 et seq.; his
second voyage, 212; winters on
Melville Peninsula, 214; winters
at Igloolik, 214; results of his
second voyage, 215; winters in
Port Bowen, 217; marries, 218;
his fourth voyage, 218; his later
work and death, 220
Parry Archipelago, 347 et seq., 362;
currents of, 5
Patience, 113, 114, 116
Paulet Island, 437
Payer, Julius, 288, 289, 316; visits
Greenland, 282
Peary, Robert, his explorations in
Greenland, 333; his second expe-
dition to Greenland, 337; his
third expedition to Greenland,
338; attempts to reach the Pole,
352 et seq.; further attempt on
Pole, 355; his sledge journey, 356;
his observations, 357; Greenland
journeys, 368, 369; his record
found, 380
Pemmican, 256, 450, 461, 469, 479,
483
Pendulum Island, 280, 282
Pendulum observations, Antarctic,
400
Penguins, Emperor, 472, 476, 496,
497; fossil, 438
Pennell, Lieut., 490, 493, 494
Penny, Capt., 251 et seq.
Pepys, Samuel, approves Wood’s
voyage, 156
Pet, Arthur, 63; commands Arctic
voyage, 65; discovers Waigatz, 66
Pet Strait, 72, 323
Petchora River, 14
Peter Island, 397, 442
Petermann Island, 442
Petersen, Carl, 258, 273
— Johan, 365, 366
Philip and Mary, 62
Philomel, 420
Phipps, Hon. Constantine,
narrative of his voyage,
death of, 174
1733
1745
Index
Phoenix, 255, 268
Physical characteristics of Arctic
Highlanders, 24; of Eskimos, 19;
of Greenland Eskimos, 22
— features of Iceland, 36
Pickersgill, Lieut., I7I, 394
Pike, Arnold, 344
Pillars, basaltic, 324
Pioneer, 251, 253, 254, 261, 264 ef
S€q., 347 j .
Place-names given by John Davis,
103; by Frobisher, 92; by Hall,
II2, 114, 116
Plankton, 426
Playse, John, his journal, 118
Pleuropogon Sabinii, 186, 295
Plover, 251, 263
Point Victory, 235
Polar areas, 3
— conference, 316
Polaris, 300, 301
Pole, South magnetic, 417
Polyphemus, 222
Ponies, in Arctic travel, 292, 293; in
Greenland travel, 381 ; in Antarctic
travel, 478, 490, 494 et seq., 497,
498
Ponting, Mr, 491
Poole, Jonas, visits Spitsbergen,
105; completes Hudson’s survey,
123; death of, 123
Population (Norse) in Greenland, 51
Porcupine, 427
Porpoise, 222
Possession Island, 415
Pourquoi Pas, 442
Priestley, Raymond, 478, 480, 491,
493, 504 :
Priests of the Eskimos, 23
“Primus” lamp, 342, 461
Prince Albert, 252 et seq., 262
Prince Albert Mountains, 417
Prince of Wales, 241
Prince of Wales Island, 274, 277
— Land, 259
— Strait, M’Clure explores and
winters in, 264
Prince Patrick Island, 266, 267
Prince Regent Inlet, 207, 217
Principall Navigations (Hakluyt),
IIo
Prontchishcheff, 176
Prosperous, 156
Proteus, 317 et seq.; founders, 319
Provisions, Davis’s, 94, 96; Dease
and Simpson’s, 229; Frobisher’s,
90; Lockwood’s, 318; Nansen’s,
334, 342; Parry’s, first voyage,
207; Parry’s, second voyage, 213;
Index
Parry’s, land journey, 209; Parry’s,
Spitsbergen boat voyage, 219;
Rae’s, 231; Scott’s first ex-
pedition, 450, 461; Shackleton’s,
479; Sverdrup’s, 348; for sledge
journeys, M’Clintock’s party, 256,
257, 259; Ross’s, 249; Scott’s, 462,
494
Pullen, Mr, 306
Purchas, Samuel, 111
Puyrchas hys Pilgvimes, 111
Purchas’s Briefe and True Relation,
145
Pyrites found by Frobisher, 85, 90
Pytheas, voyage of, 26, 27
Quadrant, Davis’s, 102; Hadley’s,
102; Weddell’s, 442; Ross’s, 507
Quadrants, Arctic, 4, 6, 13, 57
Queen Adelaide Island, 404
Quervain, Dr de, 381
Quiros, Pedro Fernandez de, 392
Racehorse, 172 et seq.
Rae, Dr John, winters in Repulse
Bay, 231; reports news of Frank-
lin’s expedition, 272
Rainbow, 227, 230
Raised terraces, 186
Raleigh, Sir Walter, supports Davis’s
projects, 94; drafts instructions
for Arctic voyage, 135
Ranunculus glacialis, 96
Rasmussen, Knud, 379 ef seq.
Rate of sledge travel, 23, 356;
Aldrich’s, 308; Amundsen’s, 484,
485; Hamilton’s, 265; M’Clin-
tock’s, 260, 266, 269; Mecham’s,
265; Payer’s, 283; Peary’s, 338;
Rasmussen’s, 380; Scott’s first
expedition, 464, 472, 475
Ravens, 332
Ravenscraig, 301
Rawson, Lieut., 304, 306, 307; death
of, 307
Record, Peary’s, found, 380
Records of Alert and Discovery, 312,
313
Regiment of Medina, 57
Reindeer, 14, 267; introduced into
Spitsbergen, 287
Reliance, 227
Relics, of the Onkilon, 21; of Erich-
sens’ party, 378; of Franklin
found, 272, 275, 276, 314; of
Parry’s expedition, 260
Rennick, Lieut., 490, 493, 494
Repulse Bay, 166, 213, 230, 231
Rescue, 252, 255
533
Resolute, 251, 253 et seq., 264 et seq.
Resolution, Button’s, 136
— Cook’s, 169 et seq., 394 et seq.
— Scoresby’s, 192, 194, 195
Revenge, the, action described by
Linschoten, 71
Rhodostethia rosea, 343
Rhytina Siellevi, .79
Richard and Barnard, 124
Richardson, Dr, 223 et seg., 226;
shoots Michel, 225
Rijp, Jan Cornelis, 72, 73, 78
Ringnes, Herrn, 347
Ringnes Islands, 348, 349, 355
Rink, Dr, 332
Rivers of Siberia, 15
Robertson, Dr, 412
Robertson Bay, 433, 456, 493
Rodgers, 329
Roe, Sir Thomas, 152
Roosevelt, 355, 356
Ross, Sir James, 201, 212, 216, 218,
233 et seq., 410; character of, 424;
his first Antarctic voyage, 410;
second Antarctic voyage, 418;
third Antarctic voyage, 422 et
seq.; bibliography of third Ant-
arctic voyage, 425; discovers
magnetic pole, 236; winters at
Fury Beach, 236; goes in search
of Franklin, 248; death of, 251
—Sir John, 201, 233, 349; dis-
covers Arctic Highlanders, 24,
203; his first voyage, 202; knight-
ed, 237
Ross Island, 494; Quadrant, 507;
Sea, 12
Ross’s Barrier, v. Barrier, Great
Ross’s Gull, 296, 343
Rossbank Observatory, 414
Royal George, 102
Royds, Lieut. Charles, 448, 452, 475
Ruins of Greenland churches, 52; of
Kakortak, 47, 52, 160; in Kin-
goadal, 48
RunicinscriptionsinGreenland, 49,52
Rupert, Prince, founds Hudson’s
Bay Company, 165
Russia, Dutch open trade with, 68
Russian Ambassador, first, visits
England, 62
— expeditions, Antarctic, 396;
Arctic, 175; Spitsbergen, 187, 285
Russians with Scott, 489, 490, 495
Ryder, Lieut. C., 367
Sabine, Colonel, 201; sails with
Parry, 206; visits Greenland, 280;
on terrestrial magnetism, 410
She)
534
Sabine Peninsula, 267
Sabine’s Gull, 203
Sabrina, 405, 406
Sabrina Land, 406, 430
Saga, of Erik the Red, 38; of Olaf
Tryggvason, 38; of Thorfin Karl-
seini, 39
St Lesmes, 389
St Paul, 177
St Peter, 177, 178
“Sallying,” 8, 195
Salomon, 86, 88
Samoyeds, 14, 16, 184, 185; de-
scribed by Digges, 107
Sanderson, William, 94, 96, 98, 104;
supports Davis’s expeditions, 104
“Sanderson his Hope,” 99, 142, 202,
207
Sandridge, Davis’s birthplace, 93
Sandwich Land, 403
Sartorius, Sir George, 401
Sastrugi, 182, 501
Saxifraga oppositifolia, 295
Schouten, Willem Cornelisz, 390
— William, Junior, 191, 194 ef seq.;
takes holy orders, 196; his life,
197; visits Greenland, 279
— William, Senior, 188, 191, 194,
195; describes Spitsbergen, 119,
T21
Scoresby Sound, 367
Scotia, 439
Scott, Capt. Robert Falcon, his first
expedition, 447 ef seq.; made
Commander, 448; his staff on
Discovery, 449; objects of, 452;
crosses Antarctic Circle, 456; falls
down crevasse, 474; his last expe-
dition, 489 et seq.; marries, 489;
his staff on last expedition, 490 e¢
seq.; meets with heavy gale, 491,
492; meets Amundsen’s party,
493; his winter quarters at Cape
Evans, 495; starts for the S. Pole,
498; finds Amundsen’s record at
the S. Pole, 500; reaches S. Pole,
5u1; death of, 502; discovery of
bodies of his party, 503; results of
his work, 504; memorial service
to, 504; character of, 504.
Scott Island, 469
Scurvy attacks Baffin’s crew, 145;
Barentsz’s crew, 75, 76; Bering’s
crew, 178; Biscoe’s crew, 404;
Egede’s colony, 159, 160; Evans’s
party, 498; Middleton’s expedi-
tion, 166; Munk’s expedition, 150;
Nares’s expedition, 306, 308, 300;
Ross’s expedition, 250
Ludex |
Sea-cow, 179
Sea-elephant, 405
Sea-leopard, 402
Sea-otter, 178
Seal-meat, 482
Seals, Southern fur, 400
— Weddell’s, 483
Searchthrift, 63
Searle, John, his ephemeris, 141
Seebohm, Henry, 326
“Senegraes,” 342, 478
Sermilik Fjord, 365
Seymour Island, 423, 431, 436
Shackleton, Sir Ernest, 449, 463 et
séq., 470; breaks down, 464; his
Antarctic expedition, 478 et seq.
Sherer, Lieut., 213, 216
Shilling, Capt., 147
Ships, Viking, 35
Sibbald, Lieut. John, 411, 420
Siberian rivers, 15; trade on, 326
Sibirikoff, 322, 323, 326
Sidney, Sir Henry, 81
Simpson, Dr, 491, 498
— Thomas, 228
Sir George Seymour Island, v.
Seymour Island
Sir Thomas Smith Channel, 347
Sir Thomas Smith Sound, 143
Skelton, Reginald, 449, 471, 472
Ski, 335, 450, 462, 482
Skreellings (natives of America), 45,
46 N., 49, 50
Sledge dogs, 17, 337, 338; 354, 355;
in Antarctic, 462, 472, 482, 483;
Greenland, 23
— flags, Nares’s expedition, 304;
Scott’s, 450
— journeys, Arctic contrasted with
Antarctic, 459, 460; Aldrich’s,
307, 308; Amundsen’s, 483;
Amundsen’s party, 315; Beau-
mont’s, 308, 309; Danish, 371 et
seq.; Hamilton’s, 208; Hayes’s,
299; Lockwood’s, 318; M’Clin-
tock’s, 249, 250, 266, 274 et seq.,
356; Markham’s, 307; Mecham’s,
267, 3560; Mecham’s great, 270;
Payer’s, 283, 289; Peary’s, 356;
Rae’s, 231; Ross’s, 235, 237;
Scott’s first expedition, 458, 463,
465, 471, 472; Scott’s last expe-
dition, 494, 498; Sverdrup’s, 348;
Allen Young’s, 276
—— provisions for, M’Clintock’s,
256, 258, 259; Ross’s, 249; Scott’s,
462, 494 .
— travel, rate of, 23, 356; Aldrich’s,
308; Amundsen’s, 484, 485;
Lndex
Hamilton’s, 265; M’Clintock’s,
260, 266, 269; Mecham’s, 265;
Payer’s, 283; Peary’s, 338;
Rasmussen’s, 380; Scott’s first
expedition, 464, 472, 475
Sledges, Tchuktches, 17; Eskimo,
234; Greenland, 23; M’Clintock’s,
256; Russian, 176; Samoyed,
14; Wrangell’s, 181
— dimensions of, 292; Cook’s, 354;
Nansen’s, 334, 342; Peary’s, 333;
Scott’s, 450, 460, 472; Shackle-
ton’s, 478
— hauling-gear, 462
— loads for, 23, 176; M’Clintock’s,
265; Scott’s, 472; Shackleton’s,
479
— motor, 490, 497
—of Franklin’s retreat, 245; of
Hearne’s expedition, 168
Sledging equipment, Hearne’s, 168;
Nansen’s, 334; Ross’s, 256; Sver-
drup’s, 348; Wrangell’s, 182;
Scott’s, 450
Sleeping bags, 460, 478
Sleipner (Odin’s horse), 31
Smallpox devastates Greenland, 162
Smeerenburg, 127, 128, 174, 360;
abandoned, 188
Smith, Sir Thomas, 105, 106, 113,
129, 142
Smith Channel, 265, 347
Smith Sound, 317; route by, 298 ef
seqg.; U.S. expedition to, 317 et
seq.
Snow, crimson, 202, 253
Snow Hill Island, 436
Snow huts of Eskimos, 20
Snow-shoes, 168, 335; of Tchuktches,
17
Sobral, Lieut., 436
Societies’ Antarctic Expedition,The,
444 et seq., 455 et seq., 406 et seq.,
471 et seq.; Committee of, 446
Sofia, 366
Sophia, 251, 296, 332
Sounding apparatus, deep sea, 426
Soundings, deep sea, 427 ef seqg., 440
South Georgia, 393, 396, 402, 436
South Magnetic Pole, 417, 475, 480,
481
South Orkneys, 400, 439, 440
South Shetlands, 398, 401, 422 e¢ seq.,
434, 436, 438
South Polav Times, 459, 496
Southampton Island, 166
Southern Cross, 433
Speedwell, Scoresby’s, 191i
— Wood’s, 156; wrecked, 157
Don
“Speksioneer,’” 190
Speyer, Sir Edgar, 489
Spitsbergen, 105, 117, 188, 317, 361;
birds of, 121; called “ Greenland,’’
118, 124; coal in, 350; Conway’s
books on, 362; described by
Scoresby, I19, 121; description
of, 128; discovered, 74; explora-
tions in, 285 et seq.; fauna of, 119,
121, 128; icebergs, 9; map of, 120;
scenery of, 119, 121; visited by
Baffin, 116; first visited by Dutch,
124; claimed by Christian IV,
124; Dutch despatch second fleet
to, 126; English first winter in,
128; Muscovy Company despatch
fleet to, 124; Russian expeditions
to, 187
Stanmore church, 1o8
Staten Island, 389, 396, 401
Stations for synchronous observa-
tions, 316
Steller, Georg Wilhelm, 178
Stone, William, 106
Stone huts, 21
Storms, magnetic, 417
Story of the Alabama Expedition, 379
Sukkertoppen (the modern), 115,
T16, 163; Old, 97
Sulphur brought from Iceland, 150
Sunshine, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100
Superb, 240
Svarteveg, 349, 354,
Sverdrup, Otto, 335, 341 et seq., 347
Swan, 69, 72
Swedish expeditions, to Antarctic, 435
et seg., 506; to Spitsbergen, 286 e¢
seq.
Sweepstakes, 156
Synchronous observations, Ant-
arctic, 420, 451; plan for, 316;
Ross’s, 414
Tahiti, visited by Cook, 395
Taimyr, Cape, 323
Taimyr Peninsula discovered, 177
Taylor, Mr Griffith, 491
Tchuktches, 16, 17, 170, 175, 325
Tegethoff, 289, 297
Temperatures, 315; Antarctic, 471,
473, 474, 490, 501, 502; deep sea,
427; lowest registered, 16
Tennyson’s epitaph on Sir John
Franklin, 243
Tents of Tchuktches, 17
“Terra Australis,” 391, 396
Terva Nova, 476, 483, 489 et seq.;
surveys New Zealand waters, 493,
494
536
Terraces, raised, 186
Terror (under Ross), 410 et seg., 418
et seq.; collision of, 419
— (under Franklin), 230, 231, 238
et seg., 240 et seq., 246 et seq.;
founders, 247
Tertiary fossils, 350
Tetgales, Brant, 69
Thalbitzer, W., 366
Thames, 326
Thomas, 86
Thomas Allin, 86
Thomasine, 126, 127
Thomson, Sir Charles Wyville, 427,
428
Thorne, Robert, counsels Arctic
voyages, 59
“Three-Degree Depét,”’ 498
Threshold of the Unknown Region, 302
Tierra del Fuego, circumnavigated,
391; part of Terra Australis, 392
Tiger, 124
Time, Norse method of reckoning, 45
Tvade’s Increase, 105
Trees, circumpolar, 13; discovered
at Cape Manning, 267
Trent, 198 et seq.
— (Franklin’s), 222, 223
Tribes, circumpolar, 13
Trinity House (Hull), 116
Tripe de Roche, 224 et seq.
Trost, 112
Trostrup, C. and G., 370 ef seq.
Tryggvason, Olaf, Saga of, 38
Tschitschagoff, Capt., 285
Tucker, Mr, 412, 413
Tula, 403 et seq.
Tundra, 14, 15
Tunguses, 16, 177
Udrést, 33
Umiaks, 20, 22, 115, 365
United States, 299
United States expedition to Smith
Sound, 317 et seq.
Upernavik, 142
Uredo nivalis, 202
Ushuaia, 436
Valdivia, 429
Valorous, 304
Veer, Gerrit de, 76; narrative of, 78
Vega, 322 et seg.; winters, 324
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Active, 431
Advance, 252, 298 et seq.
Adventure, 394
Aid, 85, 86
Akbar, 223
Index
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Alabama, 376; loss of, 378
Antarctic, 368
Alert, 303 et seqg., 312, 313
Alexander, 198, 201, 202
Andromache, 398, 400
Ann Frances, 86
Anne Royal, 146
Annula, 124
Antarctic, 436; founders, 437
Arctic, 302, 303
Avethusa, 223
Assistance, 251 et seq., 261, 264 et
seq., 349
Astrolabe, 407
Aurora, 486 et seq.
Baffin, 196
Balaena, 296, 431, 439
Bear, 86
Beaufoy, 402
Bedford, 223
Belgica, 368, 434
Bellerophon, 223
Black Dog, 101
Blijde Boodschap, 390
Blossom, 216, 226, 227, 234
Bona Confidentia, 60
Bona Esperanza, 60
Breadalbane, 268
Briseis, 201
Bulldog, 427
California, 166
Carcass, 172 et seq.
Castor, 431 et seq.
Challenger, 428
Chanticleer, 401, 423
Charles, 152 et seq.
Churchill, 167
Cho, 238, 240
Cornwallis, 238, 240
Cove, 237
Danmark, 369
Den Réd Léve, 112
Dennis, 86; founders, 88
Desive, Tor
Diana, 287, 288, 326, 431
Discovery (Baffin’s), 138 ef seq.,
142 et seq.
— (Button’s), 136
the sicen 14763
damage to rudder, 477; returns
home, 477
Index ee |
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Dobbs, 166
Dorothea, 198 et seq.
Drake, .ot
Earl Camden, 222
Edward Bonaventure, 60
Eendvacht, 390
Eenhiérningen, 150
E/iva, 290; founders, 291
Eliza Scott, 405, 406
Elizabeth, 98, 99, 100
Ellen, 98, 99, 100
Emanuel, 86
— (busse), 91
Enterprise, 248, 250 et seqg., 263
Evebus (under Ross), 410 e¢ seq.,
418 et seq.; collision of, 419
— (under Franklin), 237 ef seq.,
240 et seg., 246 et seg., 251;
sinks, 247
Esk, 195
Excellent, 238, 240
Felix, 251, 253, 254
Fortune, 177
Fox, 273, 311; winters in Bellot’s
Strait, 274
Fram (Nansen’s), 340 ef seq.;
dimensions of, 340; drift of,
344; arrives home, 344; under
Sverdrup, 347; winters in Smith
Channel, 347; winters in Havn-
fjord, 348; winters in Jones
Sound, 349
— (Amundsen’s), 482 et seq.
Francais, 442
Francis, 86
Furnace, 165
Pury, 212, 216, 234
Gabriel, 83, 86
— (Bering’s), 177
Gamaliel, 124
Ganges, 240
Gauss, 362, 440, 441, 451
George, 65
Germania, 282
Gilliflower, 113
Gjoa, 314, 315
Godspeed, 129
Greyhound, 72
Griffin, 72
Griper, 206etseqg., 212, 215, 233, 280
Hansa, 282
Heartsease (Greenland voyage),
113 et seq.
— (Marmaduke’s), 126
Hecla, 206 et seqg., 212; (Parry’s),
216 et seq., 233
— (Ryder’s), 367
Henrietta, 192
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Henrietta Maria, 154
Hertha, 431, 432
Hope, 72
— (Adams’s), 390
— (Egede’s), 158 e¢ seq.
— (Young’s), 291
Hopewell, 86
— (Knight’s), 117 et seg., 130
Ibis, 326
Ingulf, 364
Intrepid, 251, 253, 254, 201, 264
et Seq., 347
Investigator, 222, 248, 251, 263 et
seq.; loss of, 270
Isabella, 198 et seq., 233, 237
Isbjérn, 289, 360
Jane, 402
Jason, 431
Jeannette (formerly Pandora), 328;
drift of relics of, 340
John and Francis, 124
Jonah in the Whale, 188
Judith, 86
Katten, 112, 129
Lady Franklin, 251
Lamprenen v. Lamprey
Lamprey, 150, 151
Lena, 323
Lightning, 427
Lion, 91
— (Pickersgill’s), 171
Lively, 403 et seq.
London, 147
Magpie, 405
Matthew, 124
Mercury, 69
Mermaid, 96, 97
Michael, 83, 86
Moon, 86
Moonshine, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98
Morning, 466 et seq., 476
Nimrod, 478 et seq.
Nonsuch, 165
North Star (Davis’s), 96
— (Saunders’s), 250, 265
Ornen, 113
Pagoda, 425
Pandora, 311 et seéq., 327, 359;
name changed to /eannetie, 328
Patience, 113, 114, 116
Philip and Mary, 62
Philomel, 420
Phoenix, 255, 268 ;
Pioneer, 251, 253, 254, 261, 264 et
S€q., 347
Plover, 251, 263
Polaris, 300, 301
Polyphemus, 222
538
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Porcupine, 427
Porpoise, 222
Pourquoi Pas, 442
Prince Albert, 252 et seq., 262
Prince of Wales, 241
Prosperous, 156
Proteus, 317 et seq.; founders, 319
Racehorse, 172 et seq.
Rainbow, 227, 230
Ravenscraig, 301
Reliance, 227
Rescue, 252, 255
Resolute, 251, 253 et seq., 264 et seq.
Resolution (Button’s), 136
— (Cook’s), 169 et seq., 394 et seq.
— (Scoresby’s), 192, 194, 195
Richard and Barnard, 124
Rodgers, 329
Roosevelt, 355, 356
Royal George, 102
Sabrina, 405, 406
St Lesmes, 389
St Paul, 177
St Peter, 177, 178
Salomon, 86, 88
Scotia, 439
Searchthrift, 63
Sofia, 366
Sophia, 251, 296, 332
Southern Cross, 433
Speedwell (Scoresby’s), 191
— (Wood’s), 156; wrecked, 157
Sunshine, 94, 96, 98, 99, 100
Superb, 240
Swan, 69, 72
Sweepstakes, 156
Tegethoff, 289, 297
Terra Nova, 476, 483, 489 et seq.;
surveys N.Z. waters, 493, 494
Terror (under Ross), 410 et seq.,
418 et seq.; collision of, 419
— (under Franklin), 230, 231,
238 et seq., 240 et seqg., 246 et
seq.; founders, 247
Thames, 326
Thomas, 86
Thomas Allin, 86
Thomasine, 126, 127
Tiger, 124
Trade’s Increase, 105
Trent, 198 et seq.
— (Franklin’s), 222, 223
Trost, 112
Tula, 403 et seq.
United States, 299
Valdivia, 429
Valorous, 304
Vega, 322 et seq., 324
Lndex
Vessels employed in Polar discovery :
Victory, 233 et seq.
Warkworth, 326
Willem Barentsz, 359 et seq.
William, 65; founders, 66
Williams of Blythe, 398
Windward, 292
Ymer, 322
Zélée, 407
Victoria Island, 227, 230
— Land, 456, 469, 481; surveyed,
315
— Range 458, 505, 507
Victory, 233 et seq.
Vigdis, tomb of, 52
Viking ships, 35
Vikings, 35, 36; reach Iceland, 36
Vince, T., death of, 459; monument
to, 476
Vinland, 42, 45
Vocabulary, Eskimo, compiled by
Davis, 97
Vogel Hoek, 118
Volcanic action, in Arctic, 4; in
Antarctic, 400, 415, 416, 432, 465
von Toll, Baron, 341
Voyage of the “ Discovery,” 477
Voyages, of Thylde, 58; of Wil-
loughby, 59
Waigatz Island, 15, 64; birds of, 64;
flora of, 64
Wakeman, Cyrus, 212
Walrus, 122, 144, 170, 173, 296, 343,
349; attacks Trent’s boats, 199
Walsingham, Sir Francis, 94, 96, 98
Warkworth, 326
“ Water sky,” 8
Weapons, 24
Weddell, Capt. James, 404, 440; his
Antarctic expedition, 401, 402
Weddell Quadrant, 442, 507
Weddell’s Seal, 483
Wellman, 293
West Bygd, settlement formed, 47
Wetheringsett, Hakluyt rector of,110
Weyprecht, Lieut., 288, 289, 316
Whale, breaking up of, 192 et seq.;
captured by Ross, 217; jaw-bones
of, 193; killed by ship, 88; fishery,
128, 150, 188 et seq.; initiation
of, 123; in Baffin’s Bay, 204; boats,
190; lines, 190, 192
— fishing, 125
Whale Fish Islands, 241
Whale Sound, 145, 338
Whalebone, 193
Whalers, 189, 283, 284, 431; Scotch,
in Antarctic, 431; disaster to, 302
Index
Whales, 143, 422; Balaena Biscay-
ensis, 125
Whaling, 190, 192
Wharton, Admiral Sir William, 446
Whymper, Edward, visits Green-
land, 331
Wiggins, Joseph, 325 et seq.; his
scheme for Siberian trade, 326;
death of, 327
Wild, Frank, 428, 479, 486
Wilkes, Capt., his Antarctic expedi-
tion, 408, 409
Willem Barentsz, 359 et seq.
Willemoes-Siihn, 428
William, 65; founders, 66
Williams of Blythe, 398
Williamson, 490, 503
Willoughby, Gabriel, 60
— Sir Hugh, 59; his first Arctic
voyage, 60 ef seq.; sights Halgo-
land, 61; discovers Novaya Zem-
lya, 61; winters in Lapland, 61;
death of, 62
Willoughby Land, 61, 123
Wilson, Edward, surgeon with Hud-
son, 131, 134
— Dr Edward, 449, 463 et seq., 490,
494, 496, 498, 500 et seq.; death of,
593
Windward, 292
Wisting, 484
Wolfall, Frobisher’s chaplain, 90
Wollaton, tombs in church at, 60
Wolstenholme, Sir John, 106, 108,
135, 138, 142; sends Hawkridge
on polar voyage, 149
539
Wolstenholme Sound, 143, 145, 203
Wood, John, attempts North East
Passage, 156
Wrangell, Baron, his sledge journeys,
181 e¢ seq.
Wrangell Island, 184, 329
Wright, Edward, 100
— Mr, 491, 498, 503
Wyatt, Mr George, 489
Wyche, Richard, 106, 135
Wyche Islands, 286
Xema sabinit, 203
Yakutsk, 16
Yenisei River, 15, 175, 323, 326,
345
Ymer, 322
York, Cape, 202; birds of, 24
Yorke, Gilbert, 85, 90
— Sir John, 81
Young, Sir Allen, 273, 274, 276, 291,
311 et seg., 327, 359
= James, i, Disseb2 ©
Young Island, 405
Yuraks, 16
Zélée, 407
Zeni map, 54
Zeno, Niccolo, 55; errors of his map,
160
Zeuglodon, 438
Ziegler expedition, 293
Zinzendorf, Count, founds Moravian
mission, 162
Zorgdrager, C. G., 188
CAMBRIDGE: PRINTED BY J. B. PEACE, M.A., AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS.
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